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THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

VOLUME THE THIRD.
1842.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LI^I^ARY

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY. ALBEMARLE STREET.

MDCCCXLII.

These experiments, it is true, are not easy; still they are in the power of every
thinking husbakdman. he who accomplishes but one, of however limited application, and
takes care to report it faithfully, advances the science, and, consequently, the practice
of aoriculture, and acquires thereby a right to the gratitude of his fellows, and of those
who come after. to make many such, is beyond the power of most individuals, and cannot
be expected. the first care of all societies formed for the improvement of our science
should be to prepare the forms of such experiments, and to distribute the execution of these
among their members.

VoN Thaer, Principles of Agriculture.

jondou : Printed "uy V\ illiam Clowes and Sons, Stamford Street.

CONTENTS OF VOL. III.

I. — On the Improvements which have taken place in West

Norfolk. By the Right Hon. Earl Spencer . . i

II. — On the Advantage of Testing the Draught of Ploughs.

By Henry J. Hannam ...... 9

III. — Account of a Field Thorough-drained, at Drayton, in
Staffordshire. By the Right Hon. Sir Robert Peel,
Bart,, &c. &c. . . . . . . .18

IV. — On the Connection between Geology and Agriculture in
Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset. By Sir Henry
T. De la Beche, Director of the Ordnance Geological
Survey . . . . . . . .21

V. — Observations on the Wheat-midge. By the Rev. J. S.

Henslow, Professor of Botany in the University of
Cambridge ........ 36

VI. — On the Use of the Great or Jersey Trench-Plough, exhi-
bited at the Society's Annual Meeting at Liverpool, in
July, 1841. By Colonel Le Couteur . . .40

VII. — Observations on the Natural History and Economy of
various Insects affecting the Turnip-Crops ; including
the Plant-Lice, Maggots of Flies, Caterpillars of Moths,
&c. By John Curtis, F.L.S 49

VIII. — On the Comparative Value of different kinds of Fodder.

By the Rev. W. L. Rham 78

IX. — On Cottage Economy and Cookery. Compiled by French

Burke, from Essays submitted to the Society . . 83

X. — On the Present State of Agricultural Mechanics, and on
the Improvement of which the various Implements now
in use may be susceptible. By John Morton, jun. Prize
Essay . .100

XL— On the " Tchornoi Zem," or Black Earth of the Central
Regions of Russia. By Roderick Impey Murchison,
F.R.S., President of the Geological Society . . 125

XII. — Lecture on the Application of Science to Agriculture.
Delivered before the Society, on Thursday the 9th of
December, 1841. By Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S.,
Professor of Rural Economy in the University of Oxford 136

IV CONTENTS.

ARTICLE PAGE

XIII. — On the Piof^ress of Agricultural Knowledj^e during the

last Four Years. By Ph. Pusey, M.P., F.R. and G.S. 169

XIV. — Account of the Meeting of German Landowners in 1841.

By Henry Handley . . ... 217

XV.— On the Marling of a Light Sandy Soil on the Duke of

Bedford's Farm at Woburn. By Charles Burness . 233

XVI.— On Claying or Marling Land. By F. W. Overman . 234

XVII.— Early Vetches. By William Jones Williams . . 236

XVIII. — On the Cultivation of Lucerne. By Joshua Rodwell . 238

XIX. — Agriculture of the Netherlands. Part II. By the Rev.

W. L. Rham 240

XX. — On the Planting and Management of Forest-Trees, By

Charles Falkner 263

XXL— On Wheat. By C. Hillyard, of Thorpelands, near

Northampton . . . . . . .297

XXII. — Observations on the Natural History and Economy of
various Insects affecting the Turnip Crops, including
the White Cabbage-Butterflies, the Turnip-seed Weevil,
&c. By John Curtis, F.L.S., Corresponding Member
of the Imperial and Royal Georgofili Society of
Florence, &c. 306

XXIII.— On the Use of Burnt Clay as a Manure for Heavy Clay

Soils. By Francis Pym 323

XXIV.— On the Failure of the Red Clover. By the Rev. W.

Thorp ...,,.... 326

XXV.— On Measuring Cattle. By C. Hillyard, of Thorpelands,

near Northampton . . . . . . .337

XXVI. — Report on the Exhibition of Implements at the Bristol

Meeting in 1842 338

XXVIL — On the Public Institutions for the Advancement of Agri-
cultural Science which exist in other Countries, and on
the Plans which have been set on foot by In.lividuals
with a similar intent in our own. By Charles Daubenv,
M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Rural Economy in the Uni-
versity of Oxford 364

XXVIII.— On the Dyock Oat. By the Rev. R. W. Fisher . . 387

XXIX. — Report on the Wheats selected for Trial at Cambridge,

and on other Wheats. By W. Miles, M.P. . .391

XXX.— Report on Prize Wheats. By G. Kimberley . . 395

XXXL— Report on Prize-Wheats. By H. Handley . . .397

XXXH. — Account of Mr. Irving's New Machine for Constructing

Tiles. By W. Ford 398

XXXIII. —Agricultural Tour in Denmark, Sweden, and Russia. By

James F. W. Johnston, F.R.S. . . . 400

CONTENTS. V

Miscellaneous Communications and Notices : —

ARTICLE PAGE

I. — Application of Blue Shale to the Surface of Land . .161

II. — Improved Dibbling-Wheel . . . . . .163

III.— On the Application of different Manures as a Substitute

for Bones in the Growth of Turnips .... 164

IV. — On the Drainage of Land ...... 165

V. — Account of Experiments on the Growth of Swedes . . 423

VI. — On the Application of Clay to Moor-Land . . . 427
VII.— Simple and Effectual Method of destroying Rats and

Mice

VIIL- On the Use of Lime ....

IX.— On the Feeding of Stock

X. — On the Chemical Constituents of Crops

XI. — On the Quantity of Minute Ingredients of Soil contained
in an Acre of Land

XII. — Experiments with Guano

XIII. — New and Economical Oil-cake

428
429
430
433

434
437
439

APPENDIX:

Council and Officers of the Royal AgricuUural Society of England . i

Prizes for the Meeting at Bristol iii

General Regulations for Exhibition at the Meeting at Bristol . . vii

Prizes and Conditions for Essays and Reports on various Subjects . ix

Rules of Competition for Prize Essays for 1843 .... xiii

Council and Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England . xv

Honorary Members ........ xvi

Report of the Council to the Anniversary Meeting . . . xvii

General Meetings of 1842-3 ....... xxiii

Statement of Accounts from July to December, 1841 . . . xxiv

Award of Prizes at the Meeting at Bristol ..... xxv

Prizes for the Meeting at Derby ...... xxxii

Prizes and Conditions for Essays and Reports on various Subjects . xxxvi

LIST OF PLATES.

Plate L (C) to face page . . . . . . . ,77

IL (D) „ 78

HI. (E) „ 321

IV. (F) „ 322

ERRATA.

Part I.
[n Mr. Murchison's paper, p. 130, line 21, for " hectares*' read " hectolitres.

Parts II.— III.
In Mr. Pusey's paper, p. 185, line 10,/or "36«," read "54s."

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

VOLUME THE THIRD.
1842.

PART L

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

MDCCCXLII.

These experiments, it is true, are not easy; stitx they are in the power of every
thinkino husbandman. he who accomplishes but one, of however limited application. and
takes care to report it faithfttlly, advances the science, and, consequently, the practice
of agriculture, and acquires thereby a right to the gratitude of his fellows, and of those
who come after. to make many such, is beyond the power of most individuals, and cannot
be expected. the first c4re of all societies formed for the improvement of our science
should be to prepare the forms of such experiments, and to distribute the execution of these
among their members.

VoN Thaer, Principles of ^Agriculture.

CONTENTS OF PART I., VOL. III.

I. — On the Improvements which have taken place in West

Norfolk. By the Right Hon. Earl Spencer . . l

II.— On the Advantage of Testing the Draught of Ploughs.

By Henry J. Hannam ...... 9

III. — Account of a Field Thorough-drained, at Drayton, in
Staffordshire. By the Right Hon. Sir Robert Peel,
Bart., &c. &c 18

IV. — On the Connection between Geology and Agriculture in
Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset. By Sir Henry
T. De la Beche, Director of the Ordnance Geological
Survey . . . . . , . .21

V. — Observations on the Wheat-midge. By the Rev. J. S.
Henslow, Professor of Botany in the University of
Cambridge ........ 36

VI.— On the Use of the Great or Jersey Trench- Plough, exhi-
bited at the Society's Annual Meeting at Liverpool, in
July, 1841. By Colonel Le Couteur ... 40

VII.— Observations on the Natural History and Economy of
various Insects affecting the Turnip-Crops; including
the Plant-Lice, Maggots of Flies, Caterpillars of
Moths, &c. By John Curtis, F.L.S. ... 49

VIIL— On the Comparative Value of different kinds of Fodder.

By the Rev. W. L. Rham 78

IX. — On Cottage Economy and Cookery. Compiled by

French Burke, from Essays submitted to the Society . 83

X.— On the Present State of Agricultural Mechanics, and on
the Improvement of which the various Implements
now in use may be susceptible. By John Morton,
Jun. Prize Essay . . . . .100

XL— On the " Tchornoi Zem," or Black Earth of the Central
Regions of Russia. By Roderick Impey Murchison,
F.R.S., President of the Geological Society . . 125

XII.— Lecture on the Application of Science to Agriculture.
Delivered before the Society, on Thursday the 9th of
December, 1841. By Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S.,
Professor of Rural Economy in the University of Oxford 136

iv CONTENTS.

Council and Officers of the Koyal Agricultural Society of England
Prizes for the Meeting at Bristol .....

General Regulations for Exhibition at the Meeting at Bristol .
Prizes and Conditions for Essays and Reports on Various Subjects
Rules of Competition for Prize Essays for 1843

PAGE

Miscellaneous Communications and Notices:—

I. — Application of Blue Shale to the Surface of Land . . 161

II. -Improved Dibbling-Wheel 163

III. — On the Application of different Manures as a Substitute

for Bones in the Growth of Turnips . . . .164

IV. — On the Drainage of Land ...... 165

APPENDIX:

ui

vii

ix

xiii

JOURNAL

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

I. — On the Improvements which have take?i place in West Norfolk.
By the Right Hon. Earl Spencer.

Every one connected with agriculture in this country^ and pro-
bably in Europe and America, has heard of the improvements in
the agriculture of West Norfolk, brought about by the exertions,
liberality, and example of the Earl of Leicester. It is known
that it is his boast, as it well may be, that he has converted West
Norfolk from a rye-growing to a wheat-growing district. That
this statement is well-founded, is proved by the fact that the small
ports of Blakeney, Cley, Wells, Burnham, and Brancaster, which,
when Lord Leicester came into possession of his estate, and for
many years afterwards, constantly imported a large quantity of
wheat, have become exporting ports, and that now for many years
a great deal more wheat has been exported from them than has
been imported into them, and this has occurred notwithstanding
the great increase of population which has taken place, and con-
sequently the great increase in the consumption of wheat which
must have occurred in the district, which those ports used for-
merly to supply.

These are striking facts : they cannot be denied, nor can they
be accounted for in any way but by the improvement in the culti-
vation of the soil M^hich has taken place. They are not only in-
teresting to those who are practically engaged in agricultural
pursuits, but they are also interesting to the philosopher, because
they prove, that, although the general principle must be admitted
to be true, that population will press upon the means of subsist-
ence, yet to a certain point at least the skill and industry of man
may counteract this tendency, and supply a greatly increased
population, not only with the same, but with a much better de-
scription of food from the same district.

VOL. III. B

2 On the Tmprovemenl.s in West Norfolk.

It has appeared to me, that it would be interesting^ to our
Society, not only to state these results, but to endeavour to point
out the means by which they have been produced ; and with this
view I have made the best inquiries I could from Lord Leicester,
the only person now living who is able to recollect the former
state of this district, and to tell the means by which it has been
improved into its present flourishing condition.

Lord Leicester came into possession of his estate in the year
1776. At this time the whole district round Holkham was
unenclosed, and the cultivation was of the most miserable cha-
racter ; the course of cropping, as long as the land would produce
anything, was three white crops in succession, and then broad-
cast turnips ; no manure was purchased, and very little, and that
of no value, was produced on the farm. The sheep were of the
old Norfolk breed, and, with the exception of a few milch cows,
there were no cattle kept upon any of the farms.

It happened that the lease of a large part of the land, which
now forms Holkham Park, was within two years of its expiration.
In the lease previous to the one then current, this land had been
let at 1^. 6c?. an acre ; in the then current lease it had been
raised to 3s. ; Lord Leicester offered to the tenant to renew it at
bs., but Mr. Brett, the tenant, who deserves to have his name re-
corded for the great good he unintentionally did to the country,
refused to give so much for the land, upon which Lord Leicester
determined to take it into his own hands. Thus the real origin
of the great improvement of this district was, that Mr. Brett re-
fused to give 5.S. an acre for land, which now, under an improved
system of cultivation, usually produces nearly four quarters of
wheat per acre. For nothing would have been much more im-
probable than that Lord Leicester, then an extremely young man,
fond of and excelling in field-sports, with a princely fortune,
should have applied himself to the detailed management of a
farm, had he not been compelled to take this tract of land into
his own hands by the refusal of Mr. Brett to accept the terms
which were offered to him. But having taken it, he found, as
every man who will apply himself to agriculture will, the high
interest of the pursuit, his taste was formed, the habits of his life
accommodated themselves to it, and applying the whole energy of
his mind to the collection and dissemination of all the knowledge
which he could derive from practical and scientific farmers, he
has effected the great improvements which, while they have been
a source of continued happiness to himself, have produced the
most incalculable benefits to the country. If, on the other hand,
Mr. Brett had accepted the terms offered to him. Lord T^eicester
would have granted him a lease for twenty-one years, and for that
long period of time, and probably much longer, no improvement

On the Improvements in West Norfolk. 3

would have taken place ; West Norfolk would still have been
considered a district in which wheat could not be grown, and,
what would have been a still greater misfortune, Lord Leicester
might never have turned his attention to agricultural pursuits.

The lease having thus expired in 1778, Lord Leicester com-
menced farming. He was, however, necessarily ignorant of any
of the knowledge necessary to conduct the management of a farm.
But he took the only means which could give him the information
he required ; he began at once to collect around him practical
men, and invited to his house annually a party of farmers, at first
only from the neighbouring districts ; at these meetings agricul-
tural topics were discussed. Lord Leicester's farm was examined,
and his management of it either criticised or approved, and by
thus receiving information, and again communicating it to others,
not only did Lord Leicester himself arrive at the knowledge of
agricultural management, but the practical men who attended
these meetings left them better informed than when they came.
In the course of time, friends of Lord Leicester came from a dis-
tance to attend them, and thus ultimately this small beginning
expanded into the far-famed Holkham sheep -shearing.

As one of the first consequences of these discussions, he adopted
a somewhat improved course of cropping ; instead of growing
three white crops in succession, he only grew two, and kept the
land in pasture for two years in every course. This change ap-
pears gradually to have improved the land, and I find from the
old accounts of the farm that wheat was first sown upon it in 1 787.
This improved course of cropping, though quite essential, was
not of itself sufficient to enable him to grow wheat. The land,
naturally very weak, was still more impoverished by the exhausting
treatment it had received. In order to get it into better condition,
it was absolutely necessary greatly to increase the number oi live
stock which had hitherto been kept upon it ; but the production
of food for them was so small, that it was impossible at first to
adopt this mode of improvement to any great degree. The first
thing to be done was the purchase of manure. Lord Leicester
was induced to try rape- cake as a top dressing, and it answered
admirably. Another much more effective source of fertility was
adopted, and to a much greater degree than it hitherto had been.
The surface-soil of the whole district is a very light sand, but
nearly throughout it there is a stratum of rich marl at various
depths underneath. Pits were opened, and the marl dug out and
laid upon the surface. This not only increased its fertility, but
gave to the soil the solidity which is essential to the growth of
wheat. By these means clover and other artificial grasses were
raised, and the power of keeping more live stock was obtained.

As has been said, the only live stock then kept were the

B 2

4 On the Improvements in West Norfolk.

Norfolk sheep, there were no cattle. Lord Leicester made no
change in the sort of sheep, and adopted Mr. Bakewell's Leicester
breed of long-horned cattle. This, indeed, was the only breed of
cattle to the improvement of which at that time any attention had
been paid, and a young man applying himself to improved agri-
culture would naturally have been led to select them. When,
some time afterwards, he found that the Norfolk sheep were a
very unprofitable sort, the same reasons induced him to try the
new Leicester breed, a variety of sheep probably as ill calculated
to succeed on such a soil as the one he occupied as any breed
which he could have selected. He at last found that the best
sort of sheep he could adopt were the South-downs. In this,
however, as in every other of his farming experiments, Lord
Leicester acted with great caution, and did not make the changes
which he did make till thoroughly convinced by practical expe-
rience that they v/ould answer. Accordingly, for several years
he had upon his farm at the same time Norfolk sheep, new
Leicesters, and South- downs: he also tried the Merinos, but he
did not persevere long with them. I find that so late as the
sheep-shearing of 1812 there were still at Holkham both Norfolk
and Leicester sheep. Since that time South-downs have been
the only sort which he has kept.

With respect to cattle he persevered with the Leicester long-
horned breed for many years ; but somewhere towards the close
of the last century, Francis Duke of Bedford, with whom he lived
on terms of the greatest intimacy, being aware that he was inclined
to try the Devonshire cattle, in consequence of the success of a
small experiment which he had made in feeding some Devonshire
oxen bought from Lord Somervilie, bought at the late Lord
Ossory's sale a Devonshire bull and some heifers without having
had any commission from Lord Leicester, and sent them to
Holkham. Upon trial this breed proved to be by far the best
breed that could be adopted in such a soil as that of Holkham.
Lord Leicester, therefore, gradually replaced the long-horned by
increasing his stock of Devonshire cows, but, as in the case of the
sheep, some of the long -horned cattle were still to be seen at
Holkham as late as 181 '2 : from that time the only catde which
he has bred have been Devons, and the only sheep South-downs.
These latter, however, he has of late years crossed with the
Hampshire Down sheep, and he considers that this cross has
been very successful, by givdng greater strength to the constitution
of the sheep, by increasing the value of the wool, and by giving a
larger proportion of lean meat in the carcasses.

It is not, however, to cattle and sheep only that Lord Leicester
has turned his attention : a large portion of the manure produced
upon his farm is owing to the number of pigs which he kept.

On the Improvements in West Norfolk. 5

The Suffolk breed of pigs has always been one of the most valu-
able in the kingdom, but Lord Leicester has found that, by cross-
ing them with the Neapolitan breed, a much more profitable
sort is produced. The pure Neapolitan pigs, though their meat
is superior to that of any English pig, are such bad breeders, that
they are not advantageous to a farmer, but when crossed with the
Suffolk their constitution and breeding qualities are greatly im-
proved, and the cross-breed continues to possess the extraordinary
aptitude to feed of the Neapolitan without the weakness of their
constitution.

Llaving thus, by keeping animals of a thrifty and profitable
sort, increased greatly the number of his live stock, and by the
purchase of rape-cake and the application of marl, in addition to
the increased quantity of manure which his live stock produced,
improved the fertility of the land, he overcame the difficulty of
growing wheat, and he adopted the present Norfolk course of
husbandry. The farm at Holkham assumed the appearance of
fertility which it has since ever held, and attracted the attention of
every one at all interested in the improvement of agriculture.
The stock upon this farm, and still more the annual exhibitions
of the sheep-shearing proved the great superiority of the South-
down over the Norfolk breed of sheep, the latter were abandoned
rapidly by the neighbouring farmers, and now in the whole tract
of country between Lynn and Llolkham such an animal as a
Norfolk sheep is not to be seen. The Norfolks have been
entirely superseded by the South-downs. Of late years indeed
it has JDecomxC very much the custom both with the farmers gene-
rally and also with Lord Leicester himself to put a portion of their
South-down ewes to a long-wooUed ram, the produce from this
cross having proved extremely profitable, but still in all cases the
store flock continues to be of the South-down breed. With re-
spect to cattle the example of Lord Leicester has not been sg
universally followed. The polled Suffolk or Norfolk breed still
hold their ground. But though his example in keeping a breed-
ing herd of Devon cattle has been followed only to a limited
extent, yet the more important object of carrying a large quantity
of stock upon their farms is universally attended to by the
Norfolk farmers. The nature of the soil and the scarcity of old
pasture is such, that no improvement can be made in cattle by
summer-grazing, but all the farm-yards are well stocked during
the winter. By this system a large quantity of valuable manure
is produced, and the occupiers of this light and weak soil are
enabled to cultivate it to advantage. A very small proportion,
however, of this stock is bred in Norfolk.

There is scarcely any situation where it would be advantageous
to a farmer to breed all the cattle which he fattens, although 1

6 On the Improvements in IVest Norfolk.

am confident, from practical experience, that it would be advan-
tageous in the best grazing districts to breed a considerably larger
proportion than is now done. But in Norfolk, if any large pro-
portion was bred, much of the advantage of carrying a numerous
herd of cattle during the winter would be lost. It is perfectly
well known that the more nutritious the food is on which cattle
are fed, the better is the manure produced : it is therefore of great
importance that the number of cattle preparing for the market
should bear a large proportion to that of those kept in a store
and growing state. It is, therefore, in a soil like that of Norfolk
of peculiar importance that much the greater number of the
cattle on the farm should only remain on it while they are feed-
ing on the most nutritious food. No difficulty is found in effect-
ing this object; for this district^ on which at the commencement
of Lord Leicester's career scarcely a head of cattle could be
found, has now become the centre of attraction for drovers from
every part of the United Kingdom. Devonshire, Scotch, Lincoln-
shire, and I believe even Irish cattle crowd the fairs throughout
the county of Norfolk, and most certainly Norfolk now supplies
more than its full share of the beef consumed in the metropolis.

This is the present improved state at which Norfolk has arrived ;
but in order to trace some of the other main causes of this im-
provement, it is necessary to go back to the latter end of the
last century.

When Lord Leicester had proved by his ov*ai practice that
wheat might be profitably grown, he endeavoured to persuade the
neighbouring farmers to follow his example, but it was nine years
before any of them did so: at last the late Mr. Overman, whose
skill and ability are well known, made the attempt with perfect
success, and from that time the old system fell into disrepute, and
the present Norfolk agriculture gradually replaced it.

But any attempt to grow wheat would have been an entire
failure as long as the farmers persevered in growing three crops
of white grain in succession. The land had been usually let on
leases of twenty-one years, the occupying tenantry consequently
had full security that they themselves would reap the benefit to
be derived from any outlay of capital which they made, or any
improvement in agriculture which they introduced ; but they were
so ignorant of their true interests, that they would not forego the
apparent immediate profit of growing corn as long as the land
would produce it, although it is perfectly clear that, taking the
whole period of their leases into consideration, they were enor-
mous losers by pursuing this course. The leases contained no
covenants, and the tenants were at perfect liberty to cultivate
their land in any way they thought proper. Lord Leicester,
however, having proved by his own experience, and having also

On the In?2?roveme7its in TVest Norfolk. 7

been convinced by the information which he had received from
the best practical farmers with whom he was in communication,
that a better course of cropphig would be greatly to the benefit of
the occupying" tenant, while it would permanently improve the
value of his estate, determined to introduce covenants as to the
mode of cultivation into all the leases which he granted. Al-
though in the first instance the covenant only prevented the tenant
from growing more than two crops of white grain in succession,
yet so great was the ignorance of the farmers, that he met with
great difficulty in enforcing even this very modified improvement
of the old system.

At last, however, he succeeded. The effect even of this altera-
tion was such, that it proved how disadvantageous to all parties
the old system had been ; and upon the late Mr. Overman taking
a farm of Lord Leicester, he was allowed to draw the covenants
of the lease himself. He then inserted the modern improved
course of cropping well known as that best adapted to light
turnip lands. This lease has been the model on which Lord
Leicester's leases have since been drawn, making of course any
changes which the peculiar nature of each farm may require.
The tenants make no difficulty now about agreeing to adopt the
covenants inserted in their leases. The able and skilful farmers
whom Lord Leicester has been enabled to collect around him
know full well that the course of husbandry enforced by the
covenants in their leases, while it is the most advantageous for
the improvement of the property of their landlord, is the most
profitable for themselves.

I have thus, in an imperfect and superficial manner, stated the
course of the improvements which have taken place in West
Norfolk. The results are, as I stated in the beginning of this
Paper, most interesting and important ; the means by which they
were brought about very simple and plain, and at first sight appa-
rently inadequate to have produced such effects. As the first of these
means, I would put the circumstance of a man in Lord Leicester's
station applying himself practically to agriculture, and giving an
example by his own practice of what might be effected by the skil-
ful application of resources within the reach of all farmers of
ordinary capital. But this example would have had but small
effect had it not been for the periodical assemblage of men of in-
telligence, of practical experience, and of enlightened views, to
compare the results of their various systems, to discuss their
respective merits, and to criticise their respective defects. This
assemblage took place at the Holkham sheep-shearing : Lord
Leicester was there ready to try any experiments the probable
result of which was likely to be advantageous ; he was ready to
listen to any suggestions, and to report upon the results at some

8 On the Imj^rovemenh in West Norfolk.

subsequent meeting. This liberality, not only in the prizes he
offered, but in the magnificent hospitaHty of these meetings, con-
gregated men from all parts of the civilised world. None but
agricultural subjects were discussed : on these the most conflict-
ing opinions were freely given, and as freely canvassed, but every-
thing political was excluded; and thus, although the political
opinions of Lord Leicester and of most of his personal friends
were not only very decided, but for a great period, and that the
most brilliant era of the Holkham meetings, unpopular with the
great majority of those connected with the landed interest, yet
men of every shade of political opinion were heartily welcome,
and confident that, although they might hear some favourite
theory of farming ridiculed, they never would find anything hurt-
ful to their political feelings advanced. The sheep-shearing of
1822, indeed, was an exception; political topics were then intro-
duced — it was a bad omen. This sheep-shearing was the last.
By means of these discussions the correct theory of agriculture
was improved and made known : by theory I mean, Avhat it
always should mean, the combination of the results of the best
practice in various circumstances; not the fanciful schemes of
clever but unpractised projectors, well informed perhaps on other
subjects, but deriving the data from which they deduce their
plans from the speculations of their own minds, and not from the
results of practical experiments. But though the theory was thus
made known, its practical effect would have been little upon the
improvement of West Norfolk had it not been proved to be right
by the experience of men engaged in the cultivation of the dis-
trict itself.

This was effected by the well-considered covenants introduced
by Lord Leicester into his leases. Long leases are advantageous
if properly regulated ; they give the tenant a security, which he
cannot otherwise obtain, that he will reap the benefit of any out-
lay of capital which he may make upon his farm : but long leases
existed in West Norfolk w^hen its agriculture was in the wretched
state which I have described. A prejudiced or an ignorant oc-
cupier will gain nothing by having a lease ; and an unprincipled
one, though sufficiently skilful, may leave his land so deteriorated
in value, by an exhausting system, at the end of his lease, that it
will be without value to his landlord, and unproductive of any
benefit to the country, for years after the lease has expired. For
this reason it is that the combination of judicious covenants with
his long leases has enabled Lord Leicester to effect such great
huprovement not only on his own estate, but, by the example
thus set, to the whole district in which he resides.

Covenants, skilfully drawn, while they secure the landlord, do
not interfere with the husbandry of a good farmer, and are

On the Improvements in West Norfolk. 9

not at all detrimental to hinij but thej are advantageous to a
bad one.

When we look at the results to which I am calling the attention
of our Society, what an example do they hold out to all men of
landed property, but more especially to young men ! We see
what one man's exertions can do — we see by beginning in early
life to apply himself to agricultural pursuits what immense
improvement Lord Leicester has lived to see effected in his estate
— what benefit he has conferred upon his country, and what an
interesting pursuit he has secured to himself. This he has done
without debarring himself at all from the more exciting pursuits
of an English country gentleman : during a great part of this pe-
riod, while he was effecting this great good, he kept a pack of
fox-hounds; during the whole of it he has been distinguished for
his success as a sportsman in shooting.

He was undoubtedly the original and greatest cause of these
beneficial results ; his energy, his perseverance, and his liberality
were the great moving powers by which the improvements were
pressed forward : but one of the means, and that one of the most
important, which enabled him to effect what he wished, was the
annual sheep-shearing. It is satisfactory to feel that our Society,
having the same object of improving the agriculture of the
country in view., has adopted the same means, by our annual
country meetings, of effecting it. Our power of collecting and
disseminating information must be vastly greater than that of any
individual ; and, seeing the successful results which I have de-
scribed, I hope and trust we may look forward to producing
effects in the highest degree beneficial to the, country.

IL — On the Advantage of Testing the Draught of Ploughs.
By Henry J. Hannam.

To Ph. Pusey, Esq., M.P.

Dear Sir, — You and Mr. Handley have fully made known to
the Society the use and value of the dynamometer in the draught
of ploughs, and have furnished valuable data for the future
guidance of the agricultural community. What chiefly remains
to be done is to apply similar experiments to individual cases,
that each farmer may make himself acquainted with the degree of
power required to work his implements ; and whether others are
to be found that will work with less strength, and equally answer
his purpose.

Your '' Inquiry on Draught in Ploughing," in vol. i. part iii..

10 On the Draught of Ploughs.

has shown us that great differences do exist in ph)iighs, and
proves that a great portion of tlie kingdom are, in the important
operation of ploughing, needlessly expending a large amount of
labour.

A spirit of improvement has existed for some years, and the
exertions of plough- makers in many parts of the country have
furnished the farmers with implements greatly improved in
draught, working powers, and economy in wear. The principal
object that now claims the zealous and diligent pursuit of both
parties, is lightness of draught, for the important purpose of econo-
mizing horse-labour. As a first step to this desirable attainment^
no better course, I think, can be pursued than endeavouring to
ascertain in every district, by means of the dynamometer or
draught-gauge, the lightest plough suited to soil and circumstances,
and improving that to the greatest degree. No agricultural
association or farmers' club should be without one of these instru-
ments. Neighbours should subscribe to possess one in common ;
and a farmer or country resident will do a kindness to his friends
and neighbours by inviting them with their ploughs to a trial of
their respective merits in draught as well as in other properties.

It was a desire to satisfy my neighbours and myself of the great
disparity in point of draught existing among the various ploughs
used in this district, that led to the experiment of which you have
requested me to send you the result; and with this I will com-
bine others that I have made on my farm both before and since,
and also one in Kent connected with a meeting of the Isle of
Thanet Association.

I shall be glad if others be induced to make and register simi-
lar and more complete trials in their own neighbourhoods.

The drauo-ht-o^auofe, to a certain extent, is as essential to the
farmer as common weights and measures. To work an unne-
cessarily heavy-drawing plough is like selling corn by a larger
bushel than the standard. So many stones' draught gained in
ploughing a given piece of ground are in fact a saving of so much
hay and corn. In short, to pass over intermediate calculations, a
stone marked on the face of the dynanometer should be considered
to represent so many pounds, shillings, or pence. It might not
be difficult to give an idea of what one of these stones in draught
is worth in horse-keep ; and if I have time before closing this
paper, I will enter into the calculation ; of course considering,
along with mere draught, the relative cost also of time and speed.

About fifteen years ago, in accordance with a movement which
pretty generally took place in this part of Oxon and Berks, I re-
linquished the old wooden plough, and adopted the lightest
plough then manufactured by Messrs. Perry and Barrett of
Reading, and was able to work it with a pair of horses. I have

On the Draiicjlit of Ploughs. 11

never since used any other, till last summer, when they sent me a
plough of a new make, which they considered of lighter draught.

I could never perceive that I should be a gainer by exchanging
this Reading L 2, which I had used so long, (a one-wheel plough
with cast-iron body and wooden beam and handles,) for any other
I saw at work : its performance, I thought, was seldom exceeded,
and my men had little difficulty in miaintaining a more than re-
spectable position at the ploughing-matches ; and no other I
could so readily work with a pair of horses. I had rather a fancy
for the Scotch plough, admiring on a neighbouring farm its
apparent facility in cleaving and turning off the furrow ; but I
always thought I had an advantage in the wheel, which secured
me a regular depth, and an even-shaped furrow : however, I did
not perceive that this wheel really gave my horses an easier
draught. I found this L 2 at home in every species of work. In
drilling turnips it laid a neater and more level ridge (27-inch)
than my neighbour's Scotch plough. It was also applicable as a
one-horse implement, and I used it extensively in ploughing be-
tween ridges, stirring fallows, for the barley-seed furrow, &c., and
latterly in forming turnip ridges, instead of the double ridging
plough. Nevertheless, in many respects there was room in it
for improvement.

Previously to the Liverpool meeting, Messrs. Barrett and Exall
sent me their new plough marked D P, to compare in draught
with their L 2. I made several trials with them both, and on
every occasion found the draught of D P full 2 stones the lighter.

Experiment I. — At this time (early in last July) I collected a
few of my neighbours' ploughs. First came the now old-fashioned
wooden one-wheel plough, which I relinquished some years ago,
and which has now ceased to appear upon almost all the consider-
able farms except the most clayey. It is still occasionally used
by my next neighbour. To the village carpenter and blacksmith,
with its friction parts of wood and its wrought- iron share, it has
been a profitable implement ; but neither in draught, as will be
seen, any more than in repairs, can it have been very economical
to the farmer. The Watlington plough followed, which, within
a considerable circuit of the place in Oxfordshire from which it
takes its name, has superseded the above wooden plough, and
which is formed, like almost all the improved ploughs in the
south of England, with cast-iron body and share attached to a
wooden beam and handles. This has nothing very promising in
its appearance, though it is a favourite in its district. Lastly came
four varieties of Messrs. Barrett's ploughs, which are much used
in these and the adjoining counties. Of these were the L 2 and
the new make D P, and two, a single and a double-wheel, both
marked No. 8, but not havino- their own mould-boards, as I have

12 On the Draught nf P/oifijhs.

since discovered. I have, however, to include a double plough of
Messrs. Barrett's that was on its way to Liverpool, and may be
described as a double D P.

The whole were tried on a lio^ht j^ravelly loam, moist from
recent showers, from which a crop of Trifolium incarnatum had
been mowed. One horse only, for reasons which I will explam
when I come to the question of single-horse ploughing, was
attached to each, except the double plough ; and the following
statement is the result, in a furrow 8, in. wide by 5 in. deep : —

Drawn by One Horse.

Stones.

1. Old Oxfordshire, one wheel . . « . . 20

2. New ditto, Watlington . . i • • .18

3. Barrett's No. 8 two-wheel, with Ransome's mould-board

132 with ground-wrest . . . • . 17J

4. Barrett's No. 8 one-wheel, with Brightwell mould-board

and ground-wrest . . . . ■. .16

5. Barrett's L 2, one-wheel ..... 14

6. Barrett's new plough D P, one wheel . . .11

Drawn by a Pair,

7. DP 12

8. Barrett's new double plough . . . . .24

Thus it will be seen that by my original transition from the
wooden plough at 20 stones to the L 2 at 14, I gained 6 stones,
equal nearly to 1 horse in 3 ; and thus showing that my two-horse
teams had been working no harder than my three horses had
originally. Next to this conviction, this experiment proved to me
that I had made a valuable discovery — a still lighter plough —
lighter than L 2, I had been so long using. I first had the satis-
faction of confirming that I had for some years been undoubtedly
saving 30 per cent, in ploughing, and now discover that I may
again make a considerable saving by abandoning the L 2, and
henceforth adopting the D P ; and of course 1 determined on so
doing, should I on trial find the latter equal in other qualities to
the former. I have so tried it, and have found it in general work a
superior plough ; and I am only waiting some further improvements
Messrs. Barrett have undertaken in it, to restock myself entirely
with it. But I do not hesitate to say that, if I should have the
good fortune to meet with a lighter in draught (sufficiently light
to amount to a saving, and with qualities equal), this also must
share the fate of its two predecessors.

It may be worth while to consider what number of stones
gained in draught would justify us in abandoning an old plough.
If the power of one horse be put at 10 stones, one stone saved in
pair-horse ploughing will be 5 per cent, on each horse. And
this 5 per cent. I should consider myself at liberty to set down

On the Draught of Ploi/ghs. 13

as a saving to that amount in horse-keep. Where the ploughing
can be brought within tlie power of one horse this saving is
doubled ; and in four-horse work the proportion of course is
reduced to 2^ per cent. This will serve to give some idea of
the saving effected by any amount of gain in the draught of
ploughs ; but as I must proceed with my observations on our
experiment, I will reserve calculations to a future time.

The intermediate draughts (2, o, and 4 in the table) will speak
for themselves. I will only express my strong doubts of the
actual advantage derived from any shapes tliat cause such an
excess of draught. This excess is occasioned in a considerable
degree, as I imagine, by the full breast, which presents a greater
resistance; and it is used because in adhesive soils in a certain
state they accumulate the mould upon them in a less degree.
It is yet to be decided whether this advantage is not obtained
at too great a sacrifice of horse-strength.

1 tried D P again with a pair of horses for the purpose both of
comparing it with the double plough, and seeing what the addition
of the double whipper-tackle would have upon the draught ; and
I found this latter caused an increase of a sttme— and thus much
of saving in favour of one horse in a plough.

There could not be a more conclusive trial of the respective
draughts of double and single ploughs than was made in the
above experiment. Messrs. Barrett's very complete double
plough is simply two D P's combined, the mould-boards, &c.
being the same casting. The very equal result shows in the first
place its careful construction ; and the uniform working of both
ploughs, whether single or combined, which was exhibited in
other trials as well as the above, was a satisfactory proof of the
correctness of the trials and of the soundness of the method of
test. And again, this uniform result, namely, that the draught
of the double was found almost always twice that of the single,
supplies data on which to found a correct estimate of the merits
and value of a double plough.

The result of this and other little trials left no doubt which
was the fitter plough for competition at the Annual Meeting at
Liverpool. D P was there entered for trial as a one-horse
plough, and, by the prize it obtained, was adjudged to be the
lightest in draught of all the ploughs there brought forward.

During the winter it was constantly at v/ork with L 2 ; and
when I occasionally tested it with the draught-gauge, I always
found it, as I had done before, more than 2 stones lighter. And
on one occasion, when they were ploughing a good gravelly loam
to the depth of 7 inches, I found L 2 working at a draught of 22^,
and D P at 18 stones.

Experiment II. — The trial you heard of and requested for the

14 On the Draught of Ploughs.

Journal arose from a neighbour begging to have his wooden
pk)ugh, of which he had a very good opinion, compared with my
D P ; when I took tlie opportunity of collecting a few more, and
inviting my neighbours to the inspection ; and with their assist-
ance I was enabled to bring forward in this experiment a few of
the ploughs that have engaged the attention of the Society : for
example — Ransome's N L 7, the hghtest in Mr. Handley's ex-
periments, and a prize-plough at Liverpool ; Hart's improved
Berkshire; the Scotch iron swing-plough; Barrett's D P, before
described, and the old Oxfordshire — which, like the old Berks,
and the original plough in many districts, forms a useful addition
to an experiment to show the advance new ploughs have made.
But I will describe the whole in the order in which they took up
a position by the draught gauge.
They consisted of : —

1. The before- mentioned wooden plough from Cuddesdeu, which
proved to be the old one-wheel of the county.

2. The old Burcott plough, which was tried in a former experiment.
Both these were exactly of the same description, entirely of wood, and
are of the same family as the Berkshire.

3. An iron Scotch (Roxburghshire) plough from the late Mr. Jona-
than Peel's farm near Abingdon.

4. Barrett's No. 8 two-wheel on gallows, having on a Ransome mould-
board marked 132, with a ground-wrest attached, and of general propor-
tions stout enough for any work.

5. Barrett's No. 8 one-W'heel, fitted with a Brightwell (village in the
neighboiu'hood) mould-board, with ground-wrest — a plough somewhat
like, but much stouter than my L 2.

6. A Watlington one-wheel plough, which I have before described,
and which has very strongly the common characteristics of tlie improved
ploughs of these counties— a full-breasted mould-board, and a detached
under mould-board called a ground-wrest, wliich sweeps out the furrow
and forms a support for the plough at the heel.

7. Hart's one-wheel. I had rny doubts whether this was precisely the
plough described in your "Inquiry" in vol. i. part iii. of the Journal,
fancying it was a larger size, and adapted for heavy work, but I have
since ascertained it to be the same.

8. Ransome N L 7, called in your paper the Rutland, and know^n as
the lightest in Mr. Handley's experiments, and which is an excellent
plough I should imagine in every kind of soil. Its heavy proportions
and appearance are counteracted by its perfectly-formed mould- board,
which enables it, where the soil is not in too adhesive a state, to take up
a position among the lightest ploughs.

9. Barretfs J^ 2.

10. Barrett's D P, which is formed, as are all the others (except the
Scotch and the old Oxon), of a cast-iron body and wooden beam and
handles, and which possesses a whole mould-board, while the rest, with
the exception of N L 7 and the Scotch, had a ground-wrest attached.

On the Draught of Ploughs. 15

11. A Warwickshire iron double plough, well constructed, but of
great weight. I have taken the liberty of putting down Barrett's
double plough, though not present ; and of stating it at double the draught
of D P, which I am confident, from the experience I have had with it,
would have been as nearly as possible tiie number of stones it would
have exhibited had it been tried on the present occasion.

These single ploughs were all tried on the 3rd of March on a
wheat stubble, in a gravelly sandy loam, after a good deal of wet;
and the results following were noted down by those present. The
furrow was kept at 9 inches wide and 5 inches deep : —

Stones.

1. Cuddesden, Oxon, old one-wheel . . .22

2. Burcott, do. do. . . . .22

3. Scotch swing-plough . . . .20

4. Barrett's No. 8 two- wheel, with Ransome mould-board 20

5. Barrett's No. 8 one-wheel, with Biightwell mould-board 19

6. Watlington, Oxon, one-wheel . . .18

7. Hart's one-wheel . . . . .1*7

8. Ransome's N L 7, two low wdieels . . .16

9. Barrett's L 2, one-wheel . . . .15
10. Barrett's D P, one-wheel . . . * 13

Double ploughs.
Warwickshire double plough, iron . . .38

Barrett's double plough, wooden beams . . 26

There is nothing particularly new in this experiment : it is
similar in many respects to the one I have detailed before, and it
resembles one or two of the trials you have* already recorded in
the Journal. Its value consists chiefly in confirming the results
previously arrived at, and going some way I trust in establishing
them.

1. It is premised, as placed beyond a doubt, that the draught-
gauge, properly constructed, is an unerring test of the amount of
draught required by an implement, and of work performed by an
animal or other moving power, and as such is useful as a practi-
cal guide to every farmer.

2. It is made clear that the vague principles of village plough-
making must give way to the better defined and more economical
system of more instructed practitioners.

3. It is shown that the wheel has a decided advantage over the
swing plough, and that this must necessarily be the case, on plain
mechanical principles, I will show in another place. The supe-
rior science of the Scotch plough, displayed particularly in its
mould-board, is from this defect obliged to yield to less perfect
implements.

4. That a great majority of the improved wheel- ploughs have
hitherto been constructed so little with a view to lightness of

* Trial iii. p. 228, vol. i. Part iii. Journal.

16 On the Draught of Ploughs.

draught that a large portion of the cost of ploughing is needlessly
wasted.

My friend with the old wooden plough could not but come to
the conclusion that he had been ploughing at a great unnecessary
expenditure, and declared that I should be the cause of putting
him to the farther expense of a new plough, and that the lightest
in draught.

Ransome's N L 7 exhibited here the same draujjht that it did
in similar soil and circumstances in your trirds. What surprised
me was the position which Hart's plough assumed ; and it was to
satisfy myself that I had been making a trial of the correct im-
plement, that I requested the loan of your plough ; and for greater
satisfaction 1 sent it over to Mr. Chillingworth of Cuddesden,
from whom I had the one I made this experiment with, to be
compared and tested with his. The result which he and Mr.
Gale returned to me perfectly verified our previous trial. Yours
and two other Hart's, in Mr. Chillingworth's possession, in a sandy
loam furrow 9x5, all agreed on the draught-gauge, i.e., were
each 17 stones, at the same moment that D P, which I also sent
over, exhibited 13 stones, being exactly the places both were
found in at the trial on the 3rd of March. The Scotch, which
was I believe in this instance of an excellent make, was held by
its own, a superior ploughman. To the swing principle, and in
some degree to its weight of iron, we must, I think, attribute that
inferior position with regard to draught, w hich till of late it has not
been suspected to hold. Barrett's D P justified the favourable
judgment it had received, and corresponded with my previous
experience of it. The ploughs 4, 5, and 6 serve to show the drain
on farmers' resources that extensively exists by the use of imple-
ments of unnecessary draught.

Comparative Experiments during Barley-sowing. — I have
taken the opportunity afforded by the loan of your plough to carry
on a few trinls w^ith it during my tillage for barley along with three
others, Barrett's L 2 and D P, and Ransome's N L 7, which my
neighbour Mr. Davey allowed me to retain.

The soil these four ploughs have been tried in is a fair gravelly
loam that generally works well, but is rather sticky when wet,
and sets hard when dry. The first trial (April 2nd) occurred
while the seed-furrow was given to a well -pulverised surface on
w hich the barley had been cast.

The next trial (April 3rd) was during the breaking up of some
turnip ground after sheep, which had been more or less trodden
in a wet state ; and the surface had become dry and scrubbed, but
w^as moist enough beneath. The spots trodden in the rain, and
those sVighiiy poached, have been noted separately.

The third trial (April 20th) made in the same field and under

On tite Draught of Ploughs.

17

the same circumstances, except that the soil had become much
harder and drier throughout.

The fourth trial (April 11th) in which the hard trodden surface
had been previously single-horse ploughed and reduced.

The fifth trial (April 20th) during the stirring for barley
(second furrow) with single horse, 4 inches deep, upon a surface
harrowed and rolled.

I made several minor experiments besides, to verify these, as
well as for objects not immediately connected with our present
inquiry. I made also several trials in order to arrive at some
analysis of draught : they were made almost entirely by myself,
assisted only by my man. I noted no draught down till my mind
was perfectly satisfied about it ; and where there was room for
doubt I threw the advantage to the side against which the test
seemed to be going. There is a fifth place given to Hart's
second mould-board, a whole one, to compare it with its more
commonly used open one with detached ground-wrest.

Comparatwe Experiments with Four light Draft Ploughs.

Raiisome's

Hart's.

Barrett's

B.irrett's

^

.

Sil

^1

Furrow.

N L 7.

n

2:2

?: 5

L2.

DP.

St.^ines.

in. in.

I. Apr. 2. Seed farrow, wiili single

horse

lOi

9

, ,

10

8

2.} X 8

II. Apr. 3. Breaking up tarnip-

groiind trodden in rain

23

21

22

22

19

5 X 9

Ditto. Breaking up turnip-

ground less trodden .

19

18

20

20

17

5 X

III. Apr. 20. Breaking up turnip-

ground, drier and harder

..

25

2G

25

20

H X 9

IV. Apr. 11. Surface previously

single-ploughed ....

19

..

19

17

5i X 9

v. Apr. 20. Second furrow, with

single horse ....

lU

12

Ui

11

9

4X9

While the open mould-board of Hart's was a full stone
lighter than the whole one, the reverse was the case with D P,
which has a similar form of mould-board to shift. This arises,
1 believe, from greater fulness in the breast of Hart's open one.

7Vie comjmrative Average of each Plough, first, on the three
occasions in which they were all engaged together ; then, where
three ploughs only were togetheiv throughout, I think will be
found as follows : —

Average of Three Trials.

Average of every Trial.

Stones.

Stones

Ransome's N L 7

. 171

Barrett's L 2 .

17t

Hart's \vhole-})oard

. 17f

Hart's with ground-wrest

17f

Barrett's L 2 .

. 17|

Barrett s DP

15

Hart's with ground-wrest

. 17

Barrett's DP. •

. 15

VOL. III.

C

IS On Ihe Draught of Plonglis.

It would be desirable to prosecute these experiments in wet
seasons and in more adhesive soils. I have little doubt that I) P
will g;enerally be found lighter than Hart's ; in comparing the
two ploughs together, it is evidently constructed for lighter
draught.

Having satisfied my own mind about the relative position of
the above four ploughs, I was led on to inquire a little into the
cause of the difference, and thence to attempt to analyze the
draught of ploughs as connected with the swing and wheel prin-
ciple ; but, learning that the early publication of the Journal does
not admit of my completing my experiments, I will reserve them
(if thought sufficiently practical), together with other matter that
I have promised in the course of this paper, for a future occasion.

And believe me, dear Sir,

Yours faithfully,

Henry J. Hannam.

Burcoit, May 12, 1842.

HI. — Account of a, Field Thorovgh-dramrd, at Drayton, in
Stafford.^hire, By the Right Hon. Sir Robert Peel, Bart.,
&c.' &c.

To Ph. Pusey, Esq.

My dear Sir, — I comply, with the greatest pleasure, with your
wish that I should give you the particulars respecting the field
which I drained and subsoiled, the produce of which was sent to
you by our common friend Dr. Buckland.

I was riding with him over a part of my estate in the autumn
of 1840. He remarked a quantity of manure put upon a field,
of poor soil, very wet, and in bad condition generally, and said,
the tenant who placed it there went to very needless expense,
for that manure would be of no service while the land remained
undrained and in the state in which it then was.

He said also, that the land in Scotland which had been so
much improved by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, was naturally no
better than that on which we were riding, and that in its original
state it resembled that land in respect to the quality and properties
of the soil in many particulars.

These remarks of Dr. Buckland did not pass unheeded. I
selected the worst field I could find, and determined strictly to
follow the plan of Mr. Smith in respect to it, so far as draining
and subsoiling are concerned. I first proposed to the tenant that
he should retain the field and do the work under my directions ;

Account of a Field Thoroufjh-drainecl.

19

but he thought it too expensive for his means, and preferred
giving up the field and letting me take it into my own hands.

Inclosed are the details with respect to the mode of treatment,
conveyed in answers to queries put by me. The produce you
have, I believe, from Dr. Buckland. The weight given is of the
turnips, with the tops, but without the fibrous roots. I was ad-
vised by very good practical farmers not to sow turnips, but to
have a fallow for wheat : they thought the land not very well
suited for turnips, and that the best period for sowing them was
gone by. But I was desirous to exhibit the result of my experi-
ment ; which I had mainly undertaken for the purpose of encou-
raging others in my neighbourhood to follow my example. For
that very reason, perhaps, I ought to have been less impatient.

However, the turnip crop on one half the field far exceeded
my expectations ; and the comparative failure on the other was
clearly attributable to special causes.

Believe me, my dear Sir,

Very faithfully yours,

Robert Peel.
Whitehall, Jan. 13, 1842.

Is'i. — Wlial was the nature of the subsoil
in different parts of the field ?

2nd. — Was not the upper soil of a peaty
nature ?

3rd. — What was tlie general depth of it
above the sulisoil '?

4th. — Was that the best part naturally of
the field where the best crop of turnips
was?

Or was the difference of produce in
different parts of the field entirely
arising from other causes?

5th. — Was the field very dry during the
continued heavy rains of the season of
18il?

Gth. — Did the drains act effectually?

7lh. — What was the depth of the several
drains and main drain ?

8th. — When v/as the draining finished?

9lh. — What was the time when the tur-
nips were sown ?

10th. — Was It the last sown that failed ?

About one-third of tlie field was stiff clay ;
the other part was a mixture of hard
sand and gravel.

Yes.

From 4 to 6 inches.

No : the greatest portion of it being stiff
clay.

The difference of produce arose from two
causes ; viz., very heavy rains at the
time of sowing, and the wire-grub.

Yes ; very dry.

Yes.

Main drain, from 5 to 6 feet.
Sub-main . . 3 to 4 ,,
Other drains. . 2 feet 6 in. deep.

30th of April, 1841.

Hertfordshire Whites, 21st of June.

Red Giant. . . . 23rd „

Red Top .... 24th „

Globe 25th „

Yes ; the 24th and 25th of June.

c 2

20

Account of a Field Tliorough-drainecl.

lltli. — How were the tiles laid?

] 2tli.— What is the size of the field?
13th, — What was the coudition and aver-
age produce before draining?

14(h. — What manure
turnips?

was used on the

The drains being cut to their proper depth,
and the tiles laid in, a thin covering of
brushwood (spruce and Scotch firs) was
laid upon them, and 6 inches in depth
of small pebble-stones was laid upon
the brushwood, a thin laj-er of turf
(grass side downwards) was laid upon
the stones, and then iilled up with the
gravel or sand and soil which had been
dug out of the drains.

Five and a half acres.

The preceding crop was oats, and seeded
down with clover and grass seeds,
which was almost a failure. The aver-
age produce of the oats was 4 bags per
acre ; the turnips were a mere brush
crop ; the wheat about C^ bags per
acre.

20 tons of lime were spread on the surface
of the whole field, and 12 tons per acre
of farm-yard manure.

Scale of Chain.

The field was twice ploughed with a single plough, then harrowed,
rolled, and cleaned, ploughed again with a single plough, and followed
by the subsoil-plough.

Account: of a Field Tliorov fjh-drained. 21

After the field had been dramed upon Mr. Smith's plan, or nearly so
(the principal difference being that the whole of the drains had drain-
tiles placed therein, and Mr. Smith only names the main and sub-main
to have drain-tiles), it was then limed with 4 tons of good lime per
acre; then it was ridged up ; afterwards the ridges were split or opened
with a plough, and rotten dung placed within the ridge or spht : it was
immediately moulded up into ridge again, and the seed drilled on the
ridge directly over the dung, so that the seed had the full benefit of the
dung at the first stage of vegetation.

I believe I can confidently state that the crop of turnips, after the
above treatment, was four times the quantity in weight ever produced
in the same field at any previous time.

As to the quantity and the quality of the manure used, the manure
was good town-made stable manure and your own good farm-yard dung,
mixed ; the proportion used was 12 tons per acre.

The best crop (27 tons per acre) was the Hertfordshire White : sown
21st of June.

The second best (26 tons) was Mr. Skirving's Red Giant : sown
23rd of June.

The next best was the Red Top : sown 24th of June : about 16 tons.

The next best the White Globe : sown 25th of June : about 16 tons.

The whole of the seed was from Mr. Skirving, of Liverpool ; and
2| lbs. of seed per acre was sown ; and the ridges were 24 inches dis-
tant from each other.

No portion of the field was either pared or burned.

The distance between each drain is 21 feet. The strong clay which
was dug out of the drains was spread upon the peaty soil, and was con-
sidered almost as good as a dressing of manure.

Every drain was open throughout before any tile was allowed to be
laid ; and the field was almost free from water when the tiles were put
in. The field was in a wretched state before, as to wet.

(Signed) Thomas Hill.
The Rt. Hon. Sir Robert PeeL Bart.

IV. — 0)1 the Connection heticeen Geology and Agriculture in
Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset. By Sir Henry T.
De la Beclie^ Director of the Ordnance Geological Survey.

\_From tiis General Report on the Economic Geology of that district A

It can scarcely escape the most casual observer^, that the fertility
of this district varies most materially, and that very striking con-
trasts in the productive character of the soil present themselves
to his attention in different parts of it. If he will take a geolo-
logical map in his hand and compare this variation in fertility with
the colours marked upon it, he will scarcely fail to find that there

22 Connectlun between, Geoloijy <ind yl<jrlcidture in

is an evident connection between the greater or less productive-
ness he may have noticed, and the areas differently tinted in the
map. Those who examine more minutely into the subject will
soon perceive that this coincidence extends very generally to the
boundary-lines of the various colours ; so that, if the scale of the
map be sufficiently large, the relative fertility may, in some cases,
be traced even across fields, portions of them being far more pro-
ductive than others.

In endeavouring to estimate the relative amount of fertility
that may be due to the decomposition of the subsoil rocks, it is
essential that due attention be paid to local conditions as regards
aspect^ height above the sea^ and other necessary circumstances,
otherwise many erroneous conclusions may be drawn, especially
in a country like that we are now noticing, in which so many
places are exposed to the influence of the sea-winds, and where
heights vary considerably. We should necessarily expect that
sheltered situations, with a good southern aspect, wonld be those
in which, all other things being equal, Ave should find the capa-
bility of any given soil best exhibited ; and that hence, by com-
paring localities as nearly alike in this respect as we can find
them, we may be the better able to observe any differences which
may arise in soils from the mineral structure of the subjacent
rocks.

Fortunately there are many short valleys on the southern
coasts of Devon and Cornwall, the component parts of which do
not so materially vary in latitude as to render their temperature
on that account, , to any very important extent, different, where
the general atmospheric conditions are so nearly similar, that the
relative fertility of the soils in them may be fairly appreciated,
due allowance being made for the greater prevalence of cloud as
we proceed westward, viewing the district as a whole. At Lyme
Regis we have a lias valley, and at Sidmouth one formed of red
marl and sandstone, both bounded by hills of green-sand, and
both much strewed over in places by flint and chert-gravel. The
superior fertility of the Sidmouth valley is readily seen, though of
the two it is most exposed to the northerly winds. Independently
of the decomposed lias being less favourable to general cultiva-
tion, though it is commonly valuable for grass-land, the geological
conditions of the two valleys are such that, while the rain-water^
which percolates through the green-sand on the tops of the bound-
ing hills, is allowed to pass through the red sandstones in the
valley of Sidmouth, being thrown out only by the marls, the lias
in the valley of Lyme throws it out altogether, producing land-
slips and much wet ground.

If we compare the short valleys, with a southern exposure, of
Lamorna Cove (on the west of Penzance), in granite, of Chyan-

Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset. . ^3

dower (near the same town), in greenstone and slate, of Kennack
Cove (Lizard), in serpentine, of Pendowa (near Veryan), in ordi-
nary schistose graiiwacke, of Polperro, chiefly in variegated clay-
slate, and several others in different varieties of grauwacke, with
each other and with those of Sidmouth and Lyme Regis, we can
scarcely doubt that their relative fertility, and their power of
growing particular kinds of plants to advantage, greatly depends
upon their subsoil rocks.

That shelter from the prevalent sea-winds, which strike so
many parts of the coasts of Cornwall and Devon with great force,
is important to the vegetation of the district, will be amply testi-
fied by the bent and stunted character of such trees as can be
made to grow exposed to their influence, and by the fine appear-
ance of those which flourish freely when defended from them,
even when they closely approach the sea, as at Newlyn, near
Penzance, at Mount Edgecumbe, near Plymouth, and at Dart-
mouth. It will be observed, in the continuation of the same range
of rocks, that, while the portions which are exposed to these pre-
valent sea-winds will scarcely support the growth of more than a
few bent and stunted shrubs, the sheltered parts are covered by
vegetation in proportion to the fertility of the rocks of the
locality.''' Let, for instance, the vegetation on the mica slate and
chlorite rocks of the Molt, at the entrance of the Kingsbridge
estuary, be compared with that on the continuation of the same
rocks in the Sewer valley, opposite the Ham Stone, and we
shall find flourishing gardens overhanging the sea in the former
situation, orange and lemon trees growing in the open air, with
little shelter during the winter, though the Molt is exposed to the
south-east ; while in the latter trees and shrubs are completely
cut up where exposed to the south and south-west winds. For
similar reasons fine woods clothe the coast near Clbvelly, in
North Devon, though its aspect is northern ; while the conti-
nuation of the same beds of the carbonaceous series, near Hart-
land Pier, will scarcely support the growth of a tree when ex-
posed to the western winds. So also the Culbone woods, near
Porlock, which rise gradually from the shore, and flourish with

* Mr. Worgan, in his ' General View of the Agriculture of Cornwall'
(1811), p. 47, calls the attention of farmers to the value of the tamarisk for
fences in situations exposed to the brunt of the sea-winds, where scarcely
another shrub will grow in the hedges. We have observed good fences of
this plant on the south, near Landewednack (in the Lizard district), and
around Harlyn House, near Trevose Head, on the north. Hence it is pro-
bable that it might, notwithstanding this plant suffers from frost, be suc-
cessfully cultivated along a large portion of the coasts of Cornwall. As it
is, this useful tree is sparingly found. It is probable, also, that it would
thrive along the southern shores of Devon, as it grows fiiirly in some gar-
dens close to the sea at Lyme Regis.

24 Connection between Geology and AijrkuHurc in

a northern aspect, would be speedily swept away, or be contorted
and stunted in their growth, if exposed to the full force of the
same winds.

Though, from the want of friction, beyond that which they
receive from the surface of the sea, the prevalent sea-winds act
most severely on the coast vegetation exposed to them, preventing
that growth which adjacent sheltered spots show the decom-
position of the same rocks to be capable of supporting, their
influence is not confined to the coasts, but extends inland in pro-
portion to distance from the sea and height above it. Many a
valley, therefore, in a given range of rocks, is comparatively fer-
tile ; while the high grounds in the same range make a poor
return for the labours of the agriculturist.

The chalk of the district is seldom exposed on the surface, and
therefore contributes little by decomposition to the superjacent
soil ; hence we find no area of importance presenting the marked
agricultural character of the chalk portions of the adjacent
counties on the eastward. The chalk and green-sand are, indeed,
generally so completely covered by gravel that the parts represented
in maps as composed of these rocks afford a very common agricul-
tural character, and cannot, on the whole, be considered fertile.
Downs of heath and furze are very common upon these gravels ;
and those portions cultivated as arable land abound in flints and
fragments of chert. The gravels also frequently contain much
clayey matter intermingled with them, so that water does not
readily percolate through them, and black peaty soils are often
observed. In places where marls, probably the remains of the
plastic clay beds, are found near the surface, the agricultural
character of the land above the chalk and green-sand is much
improved, and the country more fertile. In those situations in
the Black Downs, where the gravels have not descended thickly
spread over the sides of the hills upon the red marls, or lias,
beneath the green-sand, the contrast offered between the agri-
cultural condition of the country, u})on the one and the other, is
remarkably striking ; indeed, a well-marked line of heath and
common nearly coincides with the division between the two rocks.
Haldon Hills also afford good examples of the contrast between
the vegetation upon the green sands, with their gravel covering,
and upon the rocks beneath them.

When the agricultural character of the lias Is compared with
that of the red marl and sandstone adjoining it, a very striking
general superiority is observed in the latter. Good opportunities
for observing this circumstance are afforded by the Vale of Taun-
ton, where both rocks occur under similar general conditions as
to climate. It will be seen also in the neighbourhood of Bridge-
water^ in that of Watchet, and near Uphill and Worle, in the vici-

Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset. 25

nity of Weston-super-Mare, on the north, and in the valley of the
Axe on the south. Excellent grass-land is often seen on the lias,
as also many good orchards; but in general the arable land
upon it seems not very remarkable for abundant produce. Oaks,
as might be expected, often grow well, particularly upon the marly
or clayey parts.

Taken as a whole, the area occupied by the red sandstone
series is one of considerable fertility, especially when uncovered by
transported gravels. The red marls, with their higher variegated
parts adjoining the lias, would appear very favourable for the
growth of apples ; and the cider obtained from their range is
commonly found to be very excellent, when sufficient attention is
paid to the mode of making — an attention not so common as
could be desired. The cider obtained from the red and variegated
marls of the Vale of Taunton, and that made in the valleys of the
Otter, the Coly, the Yart, and the Axe, where they cut into the
same beds, and the surface is fairly clear of gravel, may be taken as
examples of this circumstance. In many places, also, where beds
of red marl are intermingled with the sandstones and conglo-
merates of the other parts of the series, or the latter contain much
marly matter, the same fact will be observed. Some of the best
lands in Somerset and Devon are upon the red sandstone series ;
and the general rich appearance of the vegetation it bears, more
particularly where the soil is directly based upon it, so that its
component parts have been superficially decomposed to form the
chief part of such soil, is one of the marked features of the country.
No doubt, as these component parts vary, so does the fertility ;
but there are few soils of any great extent, composed really of de-
composed portions of the red sandstone series, which are not rich
in general products. Their different porosity certainly causes
minor variations, some of the marly grounds being inclined to be
Avefc, while some of the sandstone grounds are too dry. The upper
beds are most disposed to be wet and clayey, while of the too
great porosity of subsoil rock the localities are more scattered.

We next find a contrast between the fertility of the soil on the
beds of the red sandstone series, and of that on the rocks upon
which it rests, which is marked and striking, and much in favour
of the former. As the country formed of this series generally
occupies a lower position than that composed of these subjacent
rocks, it may be said that it is more sheltered, and that often this
contrast is deceptive, the lower and less exposed portions of
ground deriving the usual advantages from position. If, however,
we take the country between Tiverton and Bradninch, where beds
of the red sandstone are mingled on the surface with those of the
carbonaceous series, at equal heights and under similar general
conditions as to climate, or that near Cadbury and Stokeleigh

26 Coiineclion between Geoloijy and yicjricidture in

Pomeroy, Avliere the former occupy the highest ground, their
superior fertihty is not the less marked. If it be said that this is
not a fair comparison, inasmuch as the beds of the carbonaceous
series are generally far from affordino- a good soil, we may take the
country between Totnes, Torbay, Babbacombe Bay, and Newton
Bushell, where the red sandstone series is intermingled, under
similar conditions as to height and climate, with grauwacke
slates and limestone ; and except trappean rocks occur among
the latter, the same circumstance will be observable.

The soil on the carbonaceous series generally is far from good,
though here and there more fertile spots maybe found, as in some
places near Bideford, Tiverton, and a few other localities, particu-
larly where the beds are red. In those situations, also, v/here
trappean rocks are mingled with them, as near Launceston,
Milton Abbot, and Tavistock, on the west, and near Bridford,
Cristow, Ashton, and Trusham, on the east of Dartmoor, their
condition seems often much improved, the wash of the decom-
posed parts of these trappean rocks often passing over them.
The country between Launceston, Hartland, amd Okehampton is
among the most dreary and barren in the district, a poor yellow
clay being a very common product of the decomposed shales and
sandstones there found, for the grains of the sandstone are fre-
quently cemented by matter which thus decomposes. The land,
moreover, is generally high, and down succeeds down in monoto-
nous succession. The country improves in appearance in the
range of these rocks to the eastward ; still, however, as a whole,
its general character is not fertile, as a journey from Barnstaple
to Tiverton will readily show. Oaks flourish well upon these
rocks in several situations, and might probably be successfully
raised in many valleys now almost uncultivated.

From the very variable mineralogical character of the grau-
wacke, we might anticipate the very great difference observable in
the country occupied by that rock, every due allowance being
made for the varied meteorological conditions to which it is exposed
according to locality. On the north, the hard sandstones of the
Foreland, and those extending from the Hangman Hills to
Croydon Hill, on the south of Dunster, form such high land, that,
for that reason alone, we should not expect much successful culti-
vation ; but in the lower and more sheltered situations little ferti-
lity is observable : indeed, there are few among these sandstone
beds which would be readily decomposed at their exposed surfaces.
The agricultural character of the lime-bearing band of schistose
rocks extending from Ilfracombe and Combe Martin, by Exford,
to Nettlecombe, near Monksilver, is much superior to the last, and
very fair land may be seen in the less elevated and sheltered situ-
ations. The next band of grauwacke, ranging from the coast

Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset. 27

between Ilfracombe and Bull Pointy on the south of the last^ is,
again, less fertile, while that which succeeds it in the ascending
series, and which is chiefly composed of fine argillaceous slate, is
generally not much inferior ; being, however, liable to form a
clayey soil where the natural drainage is not good. The next
band, principally formed of sandstones, and ranging from the
coast at Morte Bay and Baggy Point, to Heydon and Main
Downs, near Wiveliscombe, presents generally a poor soil ; while
the band above it, extending from the vicinity of Barnstaple, by
Dulverton and Raddington, to Bathealton, and which is often
calciferous, is frequently fairly fertile.

On the south, the differences of soil, from variations in the
mineral structure of the grauwacke and its associated trappean
rocks, is still more remarkable ; and we may here observe that
the latter rocks, which are chiefly compounds of hornblende and
felspar, afford the most fertile soils of any in the district, when
their decomposition has taken place to any sufficient depth ; so
much so, that when much disintegrated, they are sometimes
worked as marl-pits for manure, and the land thus treated is
always found to be greatly benefited. The trappean ash, par-
ticularly when mingled with calcareous matter, which is some-
times the case, affords a remarkably fine soil.''' The trappean

* I had an opportunity last autumn of observing this trap-rock at my
friend Sir Thomas Acland's place near Exeter. In the quarry it has the
appearance of volcanic lava, and sometimes of ashes; and though its fiery
origin is infinitely more ancient than any existing volcano, you might sup-
pose while standing on it that you were at the foot of Vesuvius. The stones
from this quarry at Killerton had been found to act excellently as a dress-
ing for corn-land : and the soil over this rock was stated by the bailiff to be
worth 105, an acre more than the neighbouring land. Professor Johnston
has found the same circumstances in Scotland. " In the neighbourhood of
Haddington," he says, " I have seen a farming- tenant removing 12 inches
of trap soil from the entire surface of a field for the purpose of spreading a
layer of an inch in depth over twelve times the area in another part of his
farm." "The same general character," he also states, "is exhibited by the
trappean soils of other parts of the island. The height of the Cheviot Hills
renders the climate in many places unfavourable to arable culture, yet they
produce the sweetest pasture, while the low country around them has been
largely benefited by admixture with their crumbling fragments. The
whole of that lowland tract of Scotland over which these rocks extend, com-
prehending the counties of Ayr, Renfrew, Lanark, Linlithgow, Fife, and
portions of Perth, Stirling, Edinburgh, and Haddington, exhibit the fertile
or fertilising character of the decomposing greenstone. Professor Johnston
informs us that, according to Dr. Riippell, the only fertile tracts of Abyssinia
are found in valleys and on mountain slopes, where the soil is composed of
the washings of trap-rocks ; and he adds, " The more modern volcanic lavas,
which overspread Italy, Spain, and Germany, are closely related to the
trap-rocks in their general composition, and the fertility wliich overspreads
thousands of square miles of decomposed lava-streams and ejections of vol-
canic ashes in Italy and Sicily is too well known to require any detailed

28 Connection between Geology and AfjrlcuUurc in

rocks in Devon and Cornwall are very commonly known by the
name of dim stone, the harder being not unfrequently termed iro?i
or ire stone, particularly in the latter county. Much of the vesi-
cular trap and trappean ash is known as honeycomb dim, espe-
cially in Devon, and land upon it is always highly esteemed by
the farmer. Mr. Worgan (' View of the Agriculture of Corn-
wall/ p. 10) observes, that wherever the dun, or ironstone, is met
with in Cornwall, "^it is deemed a fortunate circumstance, be-
ing a certain indication of the fertility of the incumbent soil."
Limestone occurs in sufficient abundance in the vicinity of Torbay,
Newton Bushell, and Plymouth, to afford an agricultural character.
The land upon it is generally considered good, but it is frequently
light, and, from the hardness of the subjacent rock (though its sur-
face is often broken into fragments from atmospheric causes), liable
to be washed away in exposed situations. In this respect it agrees
with the carboniferous limestone on the north of the district, near
Weston-super-Mare and Uphill, as might be expected from the
similarity of their mineral composition. The range of the red
and variegated slaty beds of the grauwacke may, upon the whole,
be considered as among the most productive of that series in
Cornwall and Devon, and very frequently much barley is success-
fully grown upon it. Thus, much barley, often malted, is ex-
ported from Kingsbridge and Padstow, grown upon the red and
variegated slates of the country adjoining those places. The red
slates, particularly when they contain some calcareous matter, are
favourable also to the growth of apples, as upon the banks of the
Dart and Fowey.

As in the north, in those localities where the sandstones prevail,
there is less fertility than where slates occur. According to the
general mineral composition of the latter is also their character
of heavy or light ; those most approaching to clay slates being
liable, where the drainage is imperfect, to become clayey. They
generally support a fine growth of oak, as is well seen in the
numerous sheltered valleys of southern Cornwall and Devon.
The band of grauwacke, including the associated limestones and
trappean rocks, which ranges from Ashburton, Newton Bushell,
and Torbay, between the granite of Dartmoor and the mica slates
of Marlborough and Chivelstone, to Plymouth, and thence along

description."— Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry, p. 386; where the ex-
ceptions to the general rule are stated. Dr. Bucldand informs me that, in
July, 1840, being on a visit at the place of Sir C. Menteith, Closehurn, in
Dumfriesshire, he observed on a moor lately reclaimed from heath, and
then covered with coarse grass, a band of bright emerald-green herbage
stretching across it. This band marked the underground course of a trap-
dyke, traversing slate-rocks, called Devonian, from their prevalence in
Devonshire. — Ph. Pusey.

Cornirall, Devon, and Wed Somerset. 29

the southern shores of Cornwall by the Looes, Fowey, Veryan,
and Falmouth, to the northern part of the Lizard district, may be
considered, upon the whole, the most fertile part of the Cornish
and South Devon grauwacke, especially the more eastern part
between the Tamar, Torbay, and Newton Bushell.* Other minor
areas, no doubt, afford equally good land ; as, for instance, the
vicinity of Penzance, a tract, the superior fertility of which has
been pointed out by Dr. Paris, and correctly referred by him to
the decomposition of the greenstone rocks which there abound.
He states that, when he wrote (1818), a belt of land around that
town, of 1000 acres, produced an annual rent of 10,000/.f

The mining districts have often a very barren aspect, inde-
pendently of the destruction of vegetation produced by mining
operations on the surface. We have frequently found the ground
covered, in such situations, by a thin bed of quartz fragments,
composed apparently of the parts of those minor veins which often
abundantly traverse such countries in different places. It would
appear as if, during the decomposition of the general surface by
meteoric influences, and the removal of the finer particles of
the slates by rains, these fragments had gradually accumulated
on the surface, rendering it even less fertile than it would other-
wise he. 'I

Judging from the Lizard, the soil on the serpentine is far from
fertile, frequently retaining the water on its surface, so that
swamps and marshy places are common. Even on the slopes of
the hills, where the natural drainage is good, little can be said for

* A portion of this rock, near the Tamar, between Tavistock and Laun-
ceston, where it is called SkiUot, affords a soil of singular fertihty, the grass-
lands yielding; often from 2 to 3 tons of fine hay, principally consisting of
white clover. On the pasture it is affirmed that an ox will, from being
quite poor, get moderately fat in ten weeks. As arable land, many parts are
too forcing for the growth either of wheat or potatoes. An exact analysis of
the soil and subsoil of this district would be very instructive. The agri'
culturist must study the constiiution of his patient the soil, if he would
understand where its strength or weakness lies. — F. Falknkr.

t Observations on the Geological Structure of Cornwall, with a view to
trace its connection with and inlluence upon its Agricultural Economy, and
to establish a rational System of Improvement by the scientific application
of Mineral Manure. — Trans. Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, vol. i., p. 188.

% Quartz is commonly linown by the name of 5par in western Cornwall,
and as ivhiteacre in eastern Cornwall and part of Devon. Mr. Worgan,
noticing the loose quartz fragments of various sizes dispersed over the sur-
face in many parts of Cornwall, and that it may be sometimes profitable to
remove them, states, that "Mr. James, of St. Agnes, cleared a large field of
spar, by screening the whole mass of spar and earth, as deep as the yellow
substratum, in the same manner as masons screen the earth for their mor-
tar ; and the experiment answered well, although it cost 40/. per acre : the
land was afterwards let for 3/. per acre, and the stones were purchased to
make a road." (View of the Agriculture of Cornwall, p. 11.)

30 Connection hetiveen Geolocjy and Agriculture in

its agricultural qualities, tliough Me have here and there seen
some fair grass land, and better corn crops than might, at first
sight, be anticipated. As is \Yell known, the serpentine of the
Lizard offers a marked example of a particular plant, the Erica
vaga?is, a very beautiful heath, keeping to the soil upon it, so
that the boundary of the serpentine against the other rocks may
be fairly traced by its aid; indeed this plant is rarely found
beyond it. The general barren character of the serpentine of the
Lizard contrasts very forcibly with the soil on the adjoining dial-
lage rock and sienite, among the most fertile, if not the most
fertile, of the lands in the district. As Dr. Paris observes, " the
lands betw^een the church (of St. Keverne) and Coverack Cove
constitute one of the most extraordinary districts in the kingdom,
presenting a rare combination of rudeness and fertility; gigantic
boulders of sienite (and diallage rock) lying scattered in all di-
rections, and yet, in point of luxuriant fruitfulness, this country
may be denominated the garden of Cornwall.''* It affords, in-
deed, a good example of the unequal decomposition of a rock, so
that while it is sufficiently disintegrated in places, that pits may
be formed, and the decomposed rock taken away for manure, in
others hard blocks are scattered over the ground or rise in tors
through it : and it also exhibits an instance of the fertility of a soil
chiefly derived from the decomposition of hornblende, or diallage,
and felspar, the crystallization being large-grained.

The hornblende slate and rock of the Lizard is also extremely
fertile, contrasting strikingly with the serpentine, which it bounds
in many places, and through which it, indeed, rises in small
patches in one or two localities, so that it is necessary not to con-
found the more abundant vegetation upon it with a growth upon
the serpentine. Some land near Lizard town, upon hornblende
slate, was, after being enclosed, not manured for several years,
though frequently cropped with barley and wheat ; so fertile is
the soil upon that rock. No doubt, from the mild temperature
of the Lizard district, where snow is rarely seen to rest upon the
ground, vegetation may possess advantages upon a given rock,
which it would not have in colder parts of Cornwall or Devon ;
but as at the same time it is much exposed to sea-winds, which
often sweep over it with great fury, and as the slates, greenstones,
hornblende rocks, diallage rock and sienite, serpentine, and talco-
micaceous rocks are all exposed to the same conditions, the
contrast afforded by the varied fertility upon these mineral com-
pounds is highly instructive, and illustrative of the fact, that soils
do, all other things being equal, mainly depend on their subjacent
rocks for their agricultural character. f

* Trans. Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, vol. i., p. 189.

t Speaking of the fertility of some lands in Mullion and other places near

Cornwall, Dcroii, and West Somerfiet. 31

Dr. Paris has pointed out that the relative fertility of the gra-
nitic soil of Cornwall would appear greatly to depend upon the
abundance and easily-decomposable character of the felspar in
the subjacent rock ; and he has also remarked that the relative
proportion of mica would seem to have an appreciable effect upon
such soils^ tending to render them poor, while the iron in some
may become a useful element in them.* Our own observations
would tend to confirm this view, due allovv^ances being made for
exposure to atmospheric influences. These would, however, seem
very considerably to influence the agricultural character of the
granitic or growan soils,f as they are generally termed. For
instance^ we have been unable to detect any appreciable difference
between much of the granite on the high land of Dartmoor and
that in the Scilly Islands, in places where both were well decom-
posed. In the Scilly Islands, particularly in St. Mary's, there
is much growan land which is fairly fertile, producing good crops
of potatoes, wheat, barley, and grass, while Dartmoor is merely
covered by heath and coarse grass, and peat is abundant. In
one case we have islands in the Atlantic of small relative height,
and upon which it is rare to see snow ; while in the other there is
an extensive area in the interior, varying from 1400 to 2000 feet
above the sea, on which fogs are frequent, and snow often falls and
rests before it is seen on the lower grounds. The country around
Moreton Hampstead, several hundred feet lower than the mass of
Dartmoor, of which it is the geological continuation, being com-
posed of a portion of the same mass of granite, forms a striking
contrast as to fertility with the high land on the west of it. The
grass land is generally good, tolerable crops of barley are ob-
tained from it, and the potatoes grown are very highly esteemed
and readily purchased at the Exeter market, one to which the
products of many fertile lands are brought ; yet the general cha-
racter of the granite round Moreton Hampstead, and of that upon
much of the adjoining high land of Dartmoor, is mineralogically
the same.

Judging from Devon and Cornwall, there are few soils which
are more affected by relative elevation above the level of the sea,
in the climate there found, than the growan, or granitic soils.
No doubt there may be some variation in the mineralogical cha-

the Lizard, Dr.Borlase notices that in his time barley had been sown, and
that " in nine weeks commonly, oftentimes sooner, they have had it again in
the sack, fit for market. This quick return,' he continues, " is not owing
to any particular sort of barley, but to the soil and situation, and a kindly
warm season, the nights in the summer time on the sea-coasts being seldom
or ever cold." — Natural History of Cornwall (1758), p. 87.

* Trans. Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, vol. i., pp. 173, 174.

t Growan is the Cornish name for gravel.

32 Connection belwcen Geology and Agrkullure in

racter of the subjacent granites, and, consequently, in tlieir relative
productiveness ; but, nevertheless, there is a constant and pre-
vailing kind of granite which readily decomposes, and forms a
large part, with the exception, probably, of the Hensborough boss,
of that to be found in the whole of them. Between the relative
fertility of the soil above this granite, according to locality, very
useful comparisons may be instituted. Dr. Boase has indeed
already remarked that the fertility of the granitic groups of
Cornwall gradually increases as they diminish in elevation,* an
observation which may very properly be extended to Devonshire.
The granitic or growan soil is one which frequently requires
rain, of which, however, there is no want generally in the district,
and the grass grown upon it is considered good for feeding cattle.
Under fair conditions as to height and exposure, it is very com-
monly celebrated for producing good potatoes. | Barley and oats
are chiefly cultivated upon it where employed for arable land,
wheat being rarely a successful crop except in a few situations,
among which St. Mary's, Scilly, and land in the parishes of
Burian, Sennan, and St. Leven, in the Land's End district, are
the most remarkable. J Oaks, ash, and sycamores grow well
upon the growan soils in sheltered situations, and where sufficient
attention is paid ; of which the grounds of Trebartha Hall, near
North Hill, afford as good an example as any we can select.

Peat is very common upon the granitic soils, more especially
where the land rises high. Dartmoor produces a large quantity
of this substance, which is much employed as common fuel in the
country adjoining it.

It has been considered that, at the junction of the granite and
slates in Cornwall, the soil is considerably improved by the mix-
ture of the decomposed portions of each rock ; and Dr. Paris states
that this fact is very observable in many places, more particularly
pointing out the superior fertility of this kind of junction at

* Trans. Geol. Society of Cornwall, vol. iv. p. 365.

t Mr. Worgan observes that "if Cornwall does not grow wheat enough
for its inhabitants, it certainly has the merit of supplying other counties
with large quantities of potatoes." — (View, &c., p. 75.) He further remarks
tliat, not only are many thousand bushels annually sent to Plymouth and
Portsmouth, but that (in 1808) some shiploads were exported to London.
Much of this produce is grown upon the growan soils, and the export would
appear as considerable as ever. Indeed large quantities are now fonvarded
to London by the Dublin steamers which touch at Falmouth, and early
potatoes are thus introduced abundantly into the London market. The
vicinity of Penzance contributes largely to this early produce, chieliy there
o-rown, however, upon the greenstone soils.

+ Mr. Worgan states (' View of the Agriculture of Cornwall,' p. 9) that
from 40 to 45 Winchester bushels of red wheat per Cornish acre have been
raised upon the lands of these three last-mentioned parishes, the Cornish
being larger than the common statute acre in the proportion of about 6 to 5.

Connvall, Devon, and West Somerset. 33

Trengwainton, near Penzance, from Chyoonto Mousehole) famous
for producing two crops of potatoes in the year), in the vicinity
of Penryn, at St. Michael's Mount, and at Pendarves. This may
no doubt be true in many cases, but it is far from being a general
fact. Indeed we can readily perceive that the benefit of such a
mixture must depend upon the mineralogical character of both
rocks at their junction ; now as these vary materially, so we
should consider would be the agricultural value of the effect pro-
duced. Those parts of the Hensborough or St, Austell granite
which contain much schorl, as a large portion of the western side
does, are far from fertile, and the altered slate rocks in contact
with them are often sterile, as may be seen on Fatwork Hill.
The like may be seen on Castle-an-Dinas and Belovely Beacon.
A large proportion of the skirts of Dartmoor is poor land, espe-
cially those parts which come into contact with the carbona-
ceous series. In those situations where the decomposed drift
from the trappean rocks has mingled with the soil, as near
Tavistock, Okehampton, Bridford, Cristow, and Hennock, the
soil is much improved, and being close to the granite, so that the
disintegrated portions of the latter are occasionally washed down
and mingled with it at the same time, the opinion above noticed
might appear to be more borne out in those situations than it
really is. As the granite is more constant in its mineralogical
character than the rocks which come into contact with it, and
generally become more or less altered, often a sufficient reason in
itself for their decomposed portions to be more fertile than they
might otherwise be, probably the benefit that may be derived
from any mixture of the growan and schistose soils mainly depends
upon the mineral composition of the slates near their junction with
the granite.

The alluvial lands, though generally fertile, vary, as might be
expected, according to the mineralogical composition of the rocks
from which they have been chiefly derived, as may be seen by
comparing the flat lands bordering the rivers in numerous places.
Let, for example, the alluvial land on the banks of the Culm,
traversing red marl and sandstone, be compared with that between
Sheep wash and Monks Okehampton on the banks of the Tor-
ridge, flowing among the carbonaceous series, or with many
among the granitic districts, and there will be little difficulty in
perceiving the superior fertility of the former. Numerous com-
pounds would appear to be effected, in some places producing
better soils than each rock separately affords : of this, probably,
the alluvial lands among the limestones and slates of the grau-
wacke may often be taken as examples. Wherever the rivers
have held their courses amid easily decomposed trappean rocks,
the usual grauwacke compounds appear much improved. In-

VOL. III. D

34 Connection between Geology and Agriculture in

deed, Ijy carefully considering the rocks traversed by the rivers,
and the kind of finer sedimentary matter likely to be borne down
during floods, adding the relative amount of soil, in which there
is already much animal and vegetable matter, that may be trans-
ported at the same time, and a fair average estimate may be
formed of the relative agricultural value of alluvial lands. At
the heads of estuaries much alluvial matter is necessarily accumu-
lated, offering a more uniform character than it would otherwise
do from the deposit of estuary mud in such situations, nevertheless
presenting differences in the drier places according to the kind of
sedimentary matter borne down by the rivers which respectively
flow into them. The Bridgewater and Worle levels can scarcely be
considered alluvial in the ordinary acceptation of the term, since a
large part of them would appear regular detrital deposits upon
the bottom of an estuary in which creatures usually inhabiting such
situations lived and died, as they have done in many deposits now
forming rocks. These levels support considerable numbers of
fine cattle, and portions of them supply large quantities of cheese,
generally known as Chedder cheese, to Cornwall, Devon, and
South Wales.

As connected with the economic geology of the district, we must
not omit to notice the sea and blown sand which is extensively em-
ployed as manure in different parts of it. It is, as we have seen
(p. 426), partly now thrown up and partly an accumulation at
various points when the relative levels of sea and land were dif-
ferent from those we nov\r find, the land having been apparently
raised. It was employed, as now, for agricultural purposes, 236
years since, as appears by Carew's Survey of Cornwall (1602).
Mr. Worgan, in 1811^ estimated the expense incurred for the whole
county in land-carriage for this sand at upwards of 30,000/. per
annum.* Dr. Paris states it to have been ascertained that 4000
horse-loads have been taken from Bude in one day.f Not only is
it carried from that place by the Bude and Launceston canal,
with its branch extending to Holsworthy, the chief commerce on
which is the conveyance of this sand, but it is conveyed over land
abundantly in carts, so that a considerable portion of the adjoin-
ing portions of Cornwall and Devon are supplied with it from
Bude. A good road has been constructed to Trebarwith Sands,
on the coast near Camelford, purposely for conveying the sand
there found into the interior.

* View of the Agriculture of Cornwall, p. 128. Borlase cites a letter in
the Philosophical Transactions of April, 1675, in which the carriage of sand
is estimated at 32,000/. per annum (Nat. Hist, of Cornwall, p. 48). Taking
this sum and that given by Mr. Worgan as fairly accurate, and as Borlase
did not object to a similar charge for the carriage of sand in his time, it
would appear that it had remained nearly the sani^e for about 140 vears.

t Trans. Geol. Society of Cornwall, vol. i., p. 193.

Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset. 35

Large quantities of sand are obtained upon the Dunbar in
Padstow harbour, employing constantly about eighty men in
several barges. The amount of sand taken from this harbour
was estimated in 1836 at about 100,000 tons per annum,* a large
proportion of which was transported into the interior from Wade
Bridge by the Bodmin railway, and its branch, up the Camel,
to Wineford. Notwithstanding the constant addition of sand
thrown by the sea upon the Dunbar, this large demand appears
to cause its decrease ; and we were assured by competent persons
that it had lost from 6 to 8 feet in height within the last half
century. Independently of the sand conveyed inland by means
of the river, large quantities of sand are also taken away, by
means of carts, horses, and donkeys, from the sand-hills opposite
Padstow.

Sand for agricultural purposes is also obtained in numerous
bays and creeks on the north coast of Cornwall from Trevose
Head to the Land's End, and is esteemed in proportion to the
shelly matter it contains. Of the few places whence sand is car-
ried on the south of Cornwall, that from Falmouth harbour, com-
posed of little else than corals, shells, and their fragments, is most
esteemed. If we consider that Padstow harbour furnishes one-
fourth of the sand employed for agricultural purposes in Cornwall
and Devon, and estimate the ton as containing about 14 cubic feet,
we should have 5,600,000 cubic feet of sand, chiefly composed of
comminuted sea-shells, annually conveyed from the coast, and
spread over the land in the interior as mineral manure. If we
take the produce of Padstow harbour as only a fifth, then we
should have 7,000,000 cubic feet thus distributed.

As may be readily conceived, numerous local causes tend to
diminish or increase the value of the sands along the coast ; gene-
rally speaking, the harder the coast and the less the detritus that
can be worn from it, the greater the proportion of the commi-
nuted shells in a given portion of sand. The easier also the
streams or rivers flowing towards the shelly sands can deposit the
sandy detritus they may bring down in floods before they reach
the shelly banks, the finer the sand. We have found the sands,
considered worth removal for agricultural purposes, to vary from
40 to 70 per cent, in their calcareous contents. Dr. Paris states
that the samples of sand usually employed, and which he exa-
mined, contained from 60 to 64 per cent, of carbonate of lime.
Probably this may be taken as a fair average proportion. The

* According to Mr. Worgan, the quantity of sand taken from Padstow
harbour, in 1811, was 54,000 cartloads. Probably the facility afforded by
the Wade Bridge and Bodmin railway may have considerably increased the
consumption of this mineral manure, independently of the general improve-
ment in the agriculture of the country, within twenty-five years.

D 2

36 Connection beliceen Geology and A(jricullure.

same author sug-gests that, though unquestionably the beneficial
effects of this mineral manure depend on the presence of the cal-
careous matter, the sea salt with which it is impregnated contri-
butes materially to its fertilizing powers ; citing as a fact, bearing
strongly in favour of this opinion, that the farmers send several
miles to the harbour of Padstow for the sand* which is drifted close
to them.y The farmers certainly seem to prefer the sand which
the tide has just left, and which must consequently contain much
saline matter. It often also then contains fragments of sea-weed,
and occasionally fresh animal matter derived from dead marine
creatures, among which are the tenants of microscopic shells still
little decomposed in them.

V. — Ohservations on the Wheat-niidge. By the Rev. J. S.
Henslow, Professor of Botany in the University of Cam-
bridge, and Rector of Plitcham.

The contribution which I now offer towards elucidating the
history of the wheat-midge is so very slight, that I should scarcely
have ventured to forward it to any other publication than a
journal expressly devoted to the progress of agriculture. It is
chiefly with the hope of stimulating others to co-operate in observ-
ing the habits of this little pest that I have determined to do so.
I have been disappointed in not ascertaining the precise circum-
stances under which the larvae of this gnat pass to the state of
pupae, and these again to the fly state. Until these circumstances
are explained. Me cannot feel perfectly sure that any proposed
palliative against their attacks is likely to be of essential service.
I shall detail the observations and experiments which I have made
since last year ; and if they have no further benefit than showing
the possible extent of damage which this insect is likely to pro-
duce in seasons favourable to its increase, an effort will have been
made towards provoking practical men to a more attentive study
of its habits.

* The writer of this note was informed by a gentleman at Padstow that
the freshest sand of that harbour contained more than 8 per cent, of
carbonate of lime. It would be very important to know in what proportion
the alk'aline and earthy muriates and sulphates known to exist in sea-water
are contained in this sand, as there can be no doubt that the value of this
sand as a manure depends almost entirely upon its saline contents, which
may be applied to land where the sand cannot be obtained. They constitute,
in fact, an essential part of all perfect manures. — F. Falk^jer.

■\ Trans. Geol. Society of Cornwall, p. 194. Borlase has observed that
the Salter the sand the bettor it was for agricultural purposes.— (Nat. Hist.
Cornwall, p. 82.) " Blown sand," he says, "which has been long exposed
to the air, is good for little, its salts are so wasted bv wind and rain." —
{Ih. 83.)

0,1 the IVhcat-midge. 37

Former observers have noticed the fact, that some of the larvse
(or maggots) quit the ears in which thej have been feeding in
order to bm'j in the ground^ where it is supposed they remain
until they change to flies ; whilst other larvae remain in the ears,
and prepare for themselves a little case or covering in which they
pass the winter. This case looks very much like an outer skin,
as though the larvae had contracted itself, and become detached
from its skin without shedding it ; and upon this case all the
markings of the body are impressed. The exact nature of this
case I must leave it to entomologists to decide; but of the fact
here alluded to I have had ample confirmation.

In my report last year I offered a conjecture, that those larvae
which entered the ground had been '' ichneumonized," whilst
those which remained encased and in the ears would be found
uninjured, and would turn to flies in the spring. I have carefully
preserved specimens cf each kind : those which spontaneously
quitted the ears were allowed to bury themselves in sand ; and
those which remained in the ears were kept apart. I collected
some hundreds of the latter description from the barns in the
neighbourhood, in a manner I shall presently describe. Not one
of either batch have changed to flies, or even produced me any
specimens of the little ichneumon which plays so kind a part in
diminishing the numbers of the midge. Mr. Curtis, to whom I
forwarded specimens, has been equally unsuccessful with myself.
In a letter from him, dated the 30th of June, I find the following
remarks : — "■ I took infinite pains in nursing the different ears of
wheat in which the Cecidomyia larvae were, and at present they
have produced nothing. I have not been able to ascertain the
state of mine, but if yours be juicy, they will no doubt produce
either the midge or a parasite in due time. I think it very
possible that different things may have been confounded, for with
the greatest care I find myself often perplexed by the appearance
of some unexpected insect, where a totally different one was
expected. Your Cecidomyiae may be retarded by being unas-
sisted by heat or wet, as in nature; or they may be all females;
or another species ; but I do not despair of your breeding them."
This account will be sufficient to show practical men the great
difficulty which frequently attends the elucidation of some ques-
tions in natural history.

I proceed now to detail the observations I have made on those
larvae which remained encased and in the ears ; and if it should
hereafter be ascertained that these do assume the fly state, I think
an easy method may be contrived for considerably diminishing
their numbers.

I had selected ears of wheat from several fields in this parish
shortly before the harvest of last year. Upon picking them to
pieces about a month afterwards, I found that every field from

38

On the Wheat-midfjc.

which I had obtained specimens had been attacked bj the midge :
indeed some larva? were present in ahnost every ear, and many
of them were encased in the manner ah'eady alluded to. I was
particularly struck with their abundance in some ears of a tall
description of revets. In one well-grown ear I found only nine
sound grains, all the rest having been reduced to an abortive state
l)y the insect. The farmer to whom the wheat belonged assured
me that he was never so much disappointed in a crop before. It
appeared to thrive well, and looked fine, but the yield was at
least one-third less than he had expected it would have been.
Part of the deficiency might have been owing to the rust or red-
rug with which the chaft" and leaves had been attacked ; but from
Vrhat I saw of the effects produced by the midge, I was satisfied
that the mischief was chiefly owing to this insect. I next ascer-
tained that numbers of the larvae might be found on the floor of
the barn where the wheat was threshed ; and next, when the wheat
was dressed, I found that some of the larva? fell through the wire-
gauze together with the dross, but that the greatest number were
blown out with the chaff. Upon sifting the chaff through the
sieve usually employed to clean it for the cattle, all the larva* which
have been blown from the machine pass through with the dust.
In order to form something like a definite notion of the numbers
of the larvae which are housed with the wheat, T endeavoured to
ascertain the number which might be picked from a certain
measure of this chaff-dust, and thence to calculate the numbers
contained in a bushel of it. Those larvae which were encased
and appeared full grown, and ready to turn to pupae, I numbered
apart from those which were imperfect, and many of which were
dead. The following table will show the result of this inquiry ;
and I shall make a few remarks upon the inferences we may
deduce from it: —

Estimated for One Bushel.

Encased
Larvae.

Imperfect

and

Dead Larvae.

Total.

J. Pilgrim.
No. 1. Chafl-dust obtained at various dis-~
lances from the machine . . . ■

— 2. Dust obtained by sifling the dross- '

wheat

J, Harper.

— 3. Chafl-dust close to the machine . ]

— 4. Ditto at 1 yard from the same . . '

— 5. Ditto at 2 yards f

— 6. Ditto at 3 yards J

Jos. Barton.

— 7. Chaft-dust from a heap of chaff

swept together from the whole floor

24,768
22,752

29,0S8

18,141

1,440

125,856

148,608
108,864

48,672

18,720

6,376

576

281,088

173,376
131,616

77,760

36,864

7,816

576

406,944

On the Wheat-midge. 39

Nos. 1 and 2.- — These were obtained at the same time, and
show that more are contained in a bushel of the dust from the chaff
than in that from the dross. As there must be many more
bushels of the former than of the latter, it proves that a very great
majority of the larvae are blown out with the chaff. Had the
chaff been selected from near the machine only, the difference
would have appeared more striking.

Nos. 3 to 6. — Obtained at another barn, clearly show that the
majority of the larvae fall within about a yard of the machine, and
that it would be unnecessary to sift the chaff which falls beyond
3 yards in order to obtain them.

No. 7. — Obtained from a third barn, abounded with the midge
to a much greater extent than the former samples. But this
sample was searched more carefully than the others, with the aid
of a pocket lens, which may partly account for the very large
number detected. I do not know how many bushels of dust
might have been obtained by sifting the chaff of a whole harvest-
ing, on any one of these farms, but was informed that it would
have amounted to several. The usual practice is to throw this
dust aside, either upon the floor of the stable or on the muck in
the yard ; and it is supposed that any insects or seeds it may con-
tain will be destroyed by the process of fermentation. It is very
possible that many are destroyed in this way, but I do not doubt
that vast numbers must escape. I have therefore suggested the
propriety of always burning this dust, as not only afibrding a
ready means of destroying these and other insects, but also of
getting rid of a number of minute seeds of weeds. A slight
alteration in the regular routine of farm practice would be all that
would be necessary ; the chaff being sifted immediately after the
dressing of the wheat, instead of at the time when it is given to
the cattle. If it should hereafter appear that these encased larvae
never turn to the fly state, and consequently that the practice here
proposed would be needless, I should still suggest the propriety
of its being generally adopted ; I have learnt within a very ievf
days that it is constantly resorted to in one part of this country
where the farming is of a superior character. The practice
would doubtless be found useful in promoting that wholesome
cleanliness from weeds which is so essential to the perfect success
of all crops.

From some observations I made in the neighbourhood of St.
Albans, I am inclined to think there are more species than one of
these midges which infest the wheat ; and that possibly different
species may be limited to particular districts — I judge merely from
some slight differences which struck me in the character of the
larvae obtained from thence. I have received the larvae from the
North of Ireland and from Shropshire, and have now found them

40 On the Wheat-midge.

in Devonshire and Cornwall. These localities, together with
those I mentioned in my report, leave us in no doubt of its very
general distribution, and must satisfy every one of the importance
of discovering, if possible, some effectual means of diminishing its
injuries.

HUcJiam, Suffolk, \Wi Oct., 1841.

VI. — On tJie Use of the Great or Jersey Trench-Plough, exhl-
hited at the Societies Annual Meeting at Liverpool, in July,
1841. By Colonel Le Couteur.

I SHOULD not have ventured to invite the attention of this great
Society to the Jersey Trench- Plough had I not given much con-
sideration to the subject, and observed that in many parts of
England and Scotland, where the cultivation of root crops is so
much practised, the crops are not so heavy as I consider they
might be under an improved system.

I attribute, in a great measure, to the deep ploughing in Jersey
the very heavy crops of potatoes, parsneps, carrots, and wheat that
are raised ; perhaps also the deep ploughing leads to the very-
large crops of hay and after-grasses that are grown there by or-
dinary farmers.

It is presumed to be correct to say that as nearly as farm hus-
bandry can be assimilated to garden culture, ever keeping in
mind the farm account, or working in the best manner at the least
expense, the more likely are we to raise not only heavy but clean
crops.

If this position be a correct one, it is absolutely necessary to
call attention to the fact that the best market-gardeners, who are
found in the vicinities of cities (take London and Paris, for in-
stance), practise deep husbandr}^ or trench with the spade. If
a man finds a shallow soil, he is seen to deepen it, not alone with
his spade, but with a mattock or pickaxe.

I have seen beautiful celery, parsneps, carrots, and potatoes,
raised on almost pure sand, with a little earth trenched in at
bottom, and a good dressing of manure between the sand and the
earth .

It is scarcely necessary to quote many authors in support of
this opinion. 1 will merely bring to recollection that Mawe,
Sinclair, Loudon, and other English writers, observe that '' the
merit of trenching in general is superior to plain digging for
many principal crops, or any plantations, as with the top soil all
weeds and dung are more effectually buried in the bottom, and

On the Great or Jersey Trench -Plough. 41

the fresh soil below more readily turned to the top, which is of
considerable importance in the growth of all seeds and plants."

Sir John Sinclair states '' that considerable tracts of waste lands
have been rendered capable of regular cultivation by trenching."

The French writers, Du Rozier, Dombasle, Vibnorin^, Nois-
ette, speak in this sense, that digging is not simply the mere
stirring of the earth with a spade, as is practised with inexpe-
rienced cultivators, or labourers more interested to display a large
surface of v/ork than careful to have performed it well. Masters
often judge of work by its extent, hence it is easy to comprehend
that in such cases labourers think of little else. In order to
Vv'ork the soil well, it must be turned to a depth proportionate to
the length of the roots which are to grow in it, whether they be
sown or planted ; meaning, that if the roots are to be 6 inches
long, the soil should be worked at least from 9 to 10 inches.

If these opinions of the best authorities in the most civilised
countries are correct, the general working of soils for ordinary
crops is not sufficiently deep throughout the united kingdom.

I am aware of the delicate ground on which I am stepping, of
the prejudice which long practice, much consideration, and
science itself has established — science, in one sense of the word,
when compared with the dark state in which agriculture had
remained up to the days of TuU and Sinclair, those parents of
modern husbandry; but the most scientific farmers now admit
that we are still infants in the knowledge of the soil — the che-
mistry of agriculture, unfolding its wonders under the mighty
lights of Davy and Liebig. The botany and entomology of hus-
bandry, revealed to us by Kirby, Bauer, Henslow, Lindley, and
others, show us hov/ much we have to unlearn, and how much
more to learn !

A deeply reflecting mind may perceive that the intelligence
and observation of acute persons, among men considered to be
mere ordinary farmers, have led them to adopt nearly correct
courses of husbandry, after, perhaps, a quarter of a century of
reflection, including merely the experience of four rotations of a
six- course shift, or six of one of four courses ; in truth, a short
experience to build a system on, which profound sagacity alone
could even approach to establish. Under the light of science,
correct rotations may now be followed with certainty, the analysis
of a soil pointing out its wants and capabilities.

The trench-plough will only suit soils that are turned to the
depth of 8 or 10 inches at least ; and can be turned 18 inches or
more. The object of proposing the use of this trenching-plough
is twofold: — 1st, To compress three or more ploughings and
harrowings, spread over a whole fallowing season, into two plough-
ings and harrowings, hence effecting a saving of much labour.

42 On the Great or Jersey Trench- Ploitgh.

and the use of the soil one season. 2ndly, To increase the
weight of all the subsequent crops.

'' The practice in many parts of England is/' according to
Loudon, " in usefulness and effect very different from what it
ought to be. In most places the first furrow is not given until
the spring, or even till the month of May or June ; or if it is
given earlier, the second is not given until after midsummer^ and
on the third the wheat is sown. Land may rest under this
system of management ; but to clean it from w eeds, to pulverise
it^ or to give it the benefit of aeration and heat, is impossible." '^■

The practice of the best farmers of the northern counties is
very different. Loudon then describes what a proper fallow is : —
" invariably commencing after harvest by one ploughing, as deep
as the soil will admit, even though a little of the till or subsoil is
brought up : this is the winter furrow." Lie afterwards describes
four ploughings and harrowings, and the mode of collecting the
couch and other weeds, with a view to destroy them.

In Professor Low's very excellent recent work, ' The Elements
of Practical Agriculture,' at the article 'Fallowing,' "Five and
in some cases six ploughings, with frequent harrowings and
rollings, are to be given between the winter furrow and the month
of August, when the dung is carried on the land and ploughed in."
Here is a sixth or seventh ploughing, and lastly the seed furrow ;
in some cases eight ploughings, unquestionably an enormous
expense, when added to the loss of the rent of the land one whole
season.

The seeds, usually of wheat, are then sown, but it is added in
the following page : — " This is precisely the management pur-
sued in the case of turnips and similar fallow crops, so that when
the learner comprehends the operations of the summer fallow
thus far, he is acquainted with the manner of preparing the land
for an extensive and important class of plants."

If by any process of husbandry the same result could be
obtained from a culture for fallow or root crops of five or six
months and only two ploughings, which is now obtained from
this long operation of four to eight ploughings, spread over a
period of ten months, it surely would be desirable and profitable.

No such thing as a fallow is known in Jersey, where from
112/. to 160/. is a common price for an acre. A farmer would
be ruined if his land lay idle a whole season : the trench-plough
is his sheet anchor.

An able w^^iter in the ' Georgical Essays/ describing it in
1781, or thereabouts, observes, "It was first invented and prac-
tised by an intelligent farmer, about fifteen or twenty years ago.
This plough, not yet sufficiently known^ is of the greatest utility
either for grubbing up the ground or ploughing deeply inwards.

On the Great or Jersey Trench-Plovgh. 43

either to establish nurseries or plantations. The inventor de-
serves everything from his country and from mankind. If he
had lived in an age wherein merit and talents find protectors and
encouragement, he would have received a reward for the inven-
tion of a plough which is, and ever will be, of universal utility."

In most cases, in the month of October or November, a skhn-
ploiighing is given to an old or two years ley, which is left exposed
to the winter frosts. It is well harrowed and cross-harrowed pre-
vious to carting out the manure, which is spread on the ground at
a rate ranging between 12 and 20 tons per acre.

In some cases the above previous skim -ploughing is deferred
till January or February, in order to allow cattle to feed off any
herbage that may be left on the land, so that the two ploughings
now to be described take place in the same month.

A short time (the shorter the better) previous to putting in the
crop, the land receives its second, and generally last ploughing.
The trench-plough then comes into play, preceded by its pioneer,
the two-horse plough. A trench is opened through the middle
or length of the field in this manner : — The two-horse plough is
made to cast off a furrow up and down, so as to assist in forming
the trench; the trench is then neatly sunk 18 inches deep, more
or less, according to the depth of the soil, and squared off 2 feet
wide with spades, the earth being thrown off to a distance on
each side.

A man with a spade should then be placed at each end of the
furrow, to dig and square it out half the length of the trench-
plough, as wide as the furrow intended to be taken, in order to
enable it to plunge into its depth at once on turning into work :
this is made at the left-hand side of either furrow, after the small
two-horse plough has made its start.

This tw^o-horse plough (one that will take a width of furrow
one inch wider than the trench-plough) then precedes, and turns
in the manure and turf together with 3 inches of soil, into the
bottom of the furrow or prepared trench. The trench-plough,
drawn by four, six, or eight horses, according to the depth desired,
then turns over from 10 to 18 inches of* clean soil on the turf,
which is so completely buried as to destroy all vegetation, even in
freshly broken sod. When the sod is quite fresh, as little soil as
possible should be taken up by the small plough, so that the
couch or weeds may be more completely covered by a great
mass of clean soil. When the ploughed land becomes so wide
as to render it inconvenient for one man at each end to open the
furrow for the plough on one side, and square up the other side

* The ground must be of a rich nature, or the subsoil thus turned up
would rather injure than improve any following crop. — F. Burke.

44 On the Great or Jersey Trench- PI oucjh.

neatly, one man Is placed at eacli corner to perform this work, so
that two additional men at each end of the land, or fonr in all, arc
now dig-j^ing, levelling', and squaring up the corners.

Two acres or more may thus be turned in a day, as the trench-
plough takes a wide furrow, from 11 to 13 inches, and by its
excellent construction moves and turns the whole soil.

This operation is performed by joint-stock labour by all farmers
in Jersey, who bring their teams to assist each other : it is appro-
priately denominated not a great ploughing, but a great digging,
" une grande fouerie ;"' indeed, no spade-husbandry is so efficient,
as most men in digging merely turn the second spit upon the
under or trench slice, whereas the whole soil is shaken and
broken by the trench-plough.

The late President of the Horticultural Society, Mr. Knight,
thus expressed himself in writing to me in reply to a description
of the mode of cultivating potatoes in Jersey : — " Your mode of
culture appears admirable ; much better than ours ; and your
crreat plough, where the soils are deep and rich, must be an
excellent instrument, never used in England — I believe." '

This was no slight authority, since corroborated by every
British cultivator to whom I have had occasion to exhibit its
performance.

Loudon, in his 'Encyclopaedia of Agriculture,' describes two
trenching-ploughs : one, No. 2616, is called a mining or trenching
plough ; the other, 2624, Morton's trenching-plough, with two
]jQ(Jies, — both of them quite unsuited for the culture here recom-
mended, whatever their merits may be.

Ordinary ploughings and cross-ploughings are usually a furrow
of 10 inches by 7 : hence it is constantly the same soil that is
moved, and, if for a long-rooted crop, not as the French writers
recommend, to a depth of 3 or 4 inches below the root, but just
sufficiently deep to stunt its growth.

I feel almost convinced that the long or round-rooted are the
proper preparatory crops for wheat, and that wheat after a grass
ley fallow is erroneous practice. I have never seen a very fine
sample grown by such a course.

It appears to me that I am borne out in these conjectures
(hazarded some years since) by the recent discoveries of Liebig ;
an admirable writer, whose profound researches may lead to great
results. I am aware that much of his work may be called scien-
tific, what is sometimes improperly said to be too deep for
farmers, but it should be on every farmer's table, were it only for
the chapter ' The Art of Culture,' where he observes : — " There
is no profession which can be compared in importance with that
of agriculture, for to it belongs the production of food for man
and animals : on it depends the welfare and development of the

On the Great or Jersej/ Trench-P/ougli. 45

whole human species^ the riches of states, and all commerce.
There is no other profession in which the application of correct
principle is productive of more beneficial effects, or is of greater
and more decided influence. Hence it appears quite unaccount-
able that we may vainly search for one leading principle in the
writings of agriculturists and vegetable physiologists."

Further on : " It is the greatest possible mistake to suppose
that the temporary diminution of fertility in a soil is owing to the
loss of humus : it is the mere consequence of the exhaustion of
the alkalies. For small as is the quantity of alkali which plants
require, it is nevertheless quite indispensable for their perfect
development. But when one or more years have elapsed without
any alkalies having been extracted froin the soil, a new harvest
may be expected."

How may I practically apply this ? Twenty years since an old
experienced farmer observed to me : — " You do not use vraic
(kelp-ashes) ; try them ; put 21. 5s. worth of ashes per acre on
your land prepared for wheat, let it lie on the surface a month or
two, and turn it in with your wheat ; it will return you 3/. or 4/.
profit, with a finer sample; it makes grain, or fills the ear well."
The result has fully justified the prediction. It has been the
constant practice in Jersey for a century past, and does precisely
act as Liebig states. He observes, p. 152: — '•' Wheat will not
grow on a soil which has produced wormwood, and, vice versa,
wormwood does not thrive where wheat has grown, because they
are mutually prejudicial, by appropriating the alkalies of the soil."
Again, p. 161 : — " It was deduced from all the foregoing facts,
that plants require for their growth different constituents of soil,
and it was very soon perceived that an alternation of the plants
cultivated maintained the fertility of a soil quite as well as leaving
it at rest or fallow. It was evident that all plants must give back
to the soil in which they grow different proportions of certain sub-
stances, which are capable of being used as food by a succeeding
generation.

" Now as excrements cannot be assimilated by the plant which
ejected them, the more of these matters which the soil contains,
the more unfertile must it be for plants of the same species.
These excrementitious matters may, however, still be capable of
assimilation by another kind of plants, which would thus remove
them from the soil, and render it again fertile for the first. And
if the plants last grown also expel substances from their roots,
which can be appropriated as food by the former, they will improve
the soil in two wajs. When we grov/ in the same soil for several
years in succession different plants, the first of which leaves
behind that which the second, and the second that which the third
may require, the soil will be a fruitful one for all the three kinds
of produce. If the first plant, for example, be wheat, which con-

46 On the Great or Jersey Trench- Plough.

sumes the greatest part of the siUcate of potash in a soil, whilst
the plants which succeed it are of such a Idnd as require only
small quantities of potash, as is the case with the Leguminosae,
turnips, potatoes. Sec, the wheat may be again sowed with advan-
tage after the fourth year ; for, during the interval of three years,
the soil will, by the action of the atmosphere, be rendered capable
of again yielding silicate of potash in sufficient quantity for the
young plants." This is precisely the Jersey practice.

It will be perceived that my anxiety is to prove that these
scientific discoveries are in accordance with the soundest practice ;
that I imagine it to be dangerous to grow the grass family in suc-
cession, as, wheat on an old grass ley, to destroy the noxious
excrementitious matter of which requires from five to seven
ploughings, and a whole season of labour and waste of land ;
whereas, bv the use of the Jersey trench-plough, those crops may
be grown, which prepare the land well, and themselves furnish
nutritive matter for wheat or barley. By the mode of culture
described, from 13 to 14 tons per acre of potatoes are grown on
all good soils in this island, though 16 is a frequent crop, and the
same soils usually produce 30 bushels of wheat per acre in ordi-
nary seasons; while in the best, they regularly produce 48 impe-
rial bushels. I should recommend this system for all lands that
can be ploughed from 9 inches to any greater depth — as a trench
9 inches deep, and of proportionate width, say 18 inches, would
receive the turf and manure skimmed 3 inches, then be perfectly
covered by 6 inches of clean soil, with the trench-plough and a
pair of, or three, horses. Wherever the till or subsoil is new and
uncultivated, only an inch or two of it should be brought up in a
season and well top-dressed, by which means 2 or 4 inches of
working soil might be gained in every four- course shift. When a
failure in a crop takes place by the increase of depth of ploughing,
it is usually from too suddenly bringing a large quantity of maiden
soil to the surface, so that its acrid nature injures the young
rootlets of the crop ; whereas, if only a small portion be brought
up and well intermixed with the old soil, which it would be most
completely so by using the paddle-plough, it may merely act as a
stimulant, and be beneficial. This is a condition to which the
attention of experienced as well as young farmers is specially
invited.

A very competent farmer in East Lothian* thus writes of the
Jersey trench-plough, used by him last year for the first time : —
'' It is hard work for four horses ploughing 14 inches. I used
six; they can work it without straining themselves 16 inches
deep. Nothing can do its work better; it makes the best sole to
a furrow I have ever seen. No person could know the land had

* I have permission to name that distinguished friend to agriculture the
Marquis of Tweeddale.

On the Great or Jersey Trench-Plough.

47

been ploughed. My turnips are quite beautiful. I trench-
ploughed one field in the dry weather, and reduced it with the
clod-crusher to fine dust. No field has a better appearance, and
quite before the regular turnip-land in the country."

4r^a-

Large wheel, 42 inches diameter.
Small ditto, 38.

N.B. — When there is a coulter, which should take about 4 inches of earth, no earth
falls back into the furrow, which is the case if no coulter is used. Boutillier's price
for a great plough with coulter, chain, and wheels, with gallows complete is 6/. ;
extra sti-ong, 11. to 8/.

The Jersey Potatoe -setting Plough.
The fly or wing is moveable, and can be set to 16, 18, or
20 inches : —

/.In. SIopinyJTcfye

.f~^^y

After the land has been trench-ploughed, as described, a light
harrow is passed over it ; a cross-harrowing is given when ne-
cessary. The land is not cultivated in ridges ; being generally
self-drained, it is always levelled as nearly as possible. The
potatoe-setting plough is then used. This plough was invented
in 1834 or 1835, at the suggestion of the writer, by Le Boutillier,
the smith who devised the paddle or potatoe-digging plough. It
weighs about 60 lbs., and in light soils may be drawn by one
horse, though more work is performed by using two.

In form it is a diminutive of the trench-plough, which sug-
gested its use. It traces a furrow 5 inches wide at the desired
depth, from 3 to 6 inches, regulated by the wheel, and the earth
is carried off 18 or 20 inches to the right by the wing of the turn-

48 On the Great or Jersey Trench-Plough.

furrovVj so as to fill the last-formed furrow^ into which women or
children, stationed at regulated distances, will have dropped the
sets : thus no delay whatever takes place.

By the usual method there is much loss of time, as the setters
have to wait till the plough has taken its second turn to cover the
potatoes previously set. With this plough, half the time and much
labour is thus saved, as the two operations are performed at once.

The usual after-culture is to horse-hoe the potatoes twice : once
as they appear after a harrowing ; the second about a month later.
The method of taking them up by Le Boutillier's paddle-prong
plough is now added.

When the potatoes are ripe, the tops and large weeds should
be drawn from them, or cut off, and removed from the field, or
conveniently placed in rows. Some farmers then harrow the
surface to level it, if the potatoes are sufficiently deep not to be
disturbed by the harrowing.

A straight- edged furrow should then be opened at each side of
a field or piece of land to be dug, so as to enable the revolving
prongs of this plough to turn freely sideways at once, then the
plough, drawn by three horses, if the land is heavy, if light, two,
should proceed round the field as many turns as the width of a
harrow. It throws out the potatoes sideways by means of the
revolving prongs. The horses must then be taken from the
plough and hooked on to the harrow, which should take one turn,
in order to uncover any potatoes which the prongs may have
caused the carlh to cover in revolving. The horses are again
tacked to the paddle-plough, and so on.

Women or children placed at such convenient distances as not
to delay the plough or harrow, will have picked up all the small
weeds and potatoes, and thrown them into separate heaps, and
the work will proceed at the rate of two acres in a day, with a
driver, three horses, and twelve pickers. The drier the weather
and land is, the better will be the work. The land remains finely
comminuted and levelled.

My own practice is, as soon as the crop is off the ground, to
spread lime, or ashes, or soot on the land, and give it a second
rather deeper ploughing with the paddle-plough, in order to mix
them intimately with the soil, and to collect the potatoes that may
have remained after the first ploughing.

Fewer potatoes are bruised, cut, or smashed by the revolving
prongs, than by men lifting them with forks. Care must be taken
that the ploughshare is sufficiently below the potatoes to lift them
fairly, so as to be caught by the revolution of the prongs.

If the horses are driven on the land, three in a line, not a po-
tatoe will be injured by them.

J. Le Coi'TEUR.

( 49 )

VII. — Observations on the Natural History and Economy of
various Insects affecting the Turnip- Crojjs ; including the
Plant- Lice, M^ig^otsof Flies, Catermllars of Moths, c^-c.

^ By John CurtisTT^.L.S., Corresponding MemUer of the
Imperial and Royal Georgofili Society of Florence, &c.

Paper III.
Having detailed the economy and natural history of two of the
most formidable enemies to the turnip-crops, I shall proceed to
the investigation of some others which attack the folia2:e, and
leave for a future report those which assail the roots. Some of
them may at first appear to be of little consequence, as affecting
the property of the farmer; but as we know that it is only from
the excess of insects that serious mischief arises, and as it is far
from improbable that they may all have their destined periods of
appearance, to ravage our crops with fearful force^ none of them
ought to be neglected : for these reasons it will be advisable to
make all the insects connected with farming known to the agri-
culturist ; and I hope that the thirst for knowledge which is so
natural to man will tend to render my investigations acceptable.
Let it likewise ever be borne in mind that whatever God has
created is deserving of our attention, and the more we study his
works the more convinced shall we be of the wisdom they mani-
fest.

History of the Aphides, or Plant-Lice.

There is no tribe of insects so universally distributed, or ex-
ceeding in multitudes the plant-lice ; and, of all the animals that
are destined to torment the gardener, none are more successful
than the Aphides, and the agriculturist not unfrequently suffers
from the effects of their blighting powers, for probably there is
not a plant, from the smallest grass to the most stately tree, that is
altogether exempt from the visits of this pigmy : —

" Feeble race ! yet oft
The sacred sons of vengeance, on whose course
Corrosive famine waits, and kills the year."

The immortal Linnaeus, considering that every plant supported
a distinct species of Aphis, named these insects after the vegeta-
bles they fed upon ; and similar as they may appear to a careless
observer, I am induced, from an extensive and careful examina-
tion of this subject, to subscribe generally to the opinion of the
Swedish naturalist : indeed, as far as the turnip is concerned,
there are three, if not four, species of plant-lice that are attached
to the different varieties of this invaluable crop — two or three
living upon the leaves, the other infesting the flower-stalks of

VOL. III. E

50 Observations on hisects affecting the Turnip Crops.

those left for seed : one is exceedingly like those which attack
the cabbages,* and I believe they are identical : if such be the
case, it may be admitted as an exception to a general rule, but it
must be remembered that it is tlie swedes which this species
infests.

We have in a former report alluded to the remarkable economy
of the Aphides, which during the summer bring forth young with-
out sexual intercourse, and in the autumn lay eggs ; the fecunda-
tion of the first female being sufficient to render twenty successive
generations fertile. f No writer that I am aware of has paid par-
ticular attention to the turnip- aphides, although the leaves are
often infested to a great extent towards the end of summer, as
well as in the autumn, and by their piercing the nerves the leaves
become curled and distorted, at the same time affording the in-
sects a habitation, protected both from heat, wet, and cold : the
green tops thus become less serviceable as food for cattle, and
the growth of the roots is unquestionably retarded by the ex-
haustion of the leaves, and the outer ones, turning yellow, fall
off. They are sometimes attacked at a much earlier period ; for
Mr. Marshall observed the Aphides extremely numerous on
seedling leaves, from whence he concludes that they may be the
cause of the very slow progress which is sometimes made by the
young turnip-plants to push into rough-leaf.

I wished to watch the economy of these insects, and having
sown some turnip-seed in a garden in the spring, I found the
leaves infested with the Aphides in the middle of July, when the
wingless females (fig. 2) were surrounded by their young broods,
unmolested by the heavy rains which had incessantly fallen during
the previous fortnight ; and two winged ones were sheltered in
the same situation (fig. 1). On the underside of one small leaf
I counted 168 Aphides; they comprised about a dozen large
green ones, like fig. 2, one of which was just giving birth to a
young Aphis (fig. 3) ; apparently, to me, it was enclosed in a thin
membrane, and came forth backwards, which would render its
inclusion in a sac the more necessary ; it was exactly like a pupa,
with two little black eyes shining through, and the antennae were
folded backward, as well as the legs, so that the limbs were not free,
but the instant it was perfectly excluded it began to move iis horns,
and immediately afterwards used its legs. J The females are green

* Mr. F. Walker says, " Two distinct species infest the turnip ; the one
is bright pale-red in colour, the other o;reen, covered with white down, which
is also abundant on tlie cabbage." — Vide ' The Entomologist,' p. 173.

t M. Bonnet, who first tried the experiment, thinks that Aphides would
produce in this way to the thirtieth generation, t^

% Mr. W. Curtis says that the young of A. salicis were able to use their
legs before they were perfectly disengaged from their mother, and thus
assisted in liberating themselves. — Linn. Trans., vol. vi. p. 79.

Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops. 51

and finely shagreened ; most of them were surrounded by eight or
ten young ones, of a yellower colour, and there was a considerable
number of larger young ones, of a somewhat rosy tint. I likewise
observed eight dark specimens (fig. 4), each of which was accom-
panied by five or six young ones, of a similar colour, with two
dark oval spots upon the head ; and these, I am inclined to be-
lieve, belonged to a different species.

It may readily be conceived that, under favourable conditions
of the atmosphere, the multiplication of the Aphides must be
beyond calculation; in 1827 and 1836 they are stated to have
committed very extensive ravages on the turnip-crops.* In the
absence, however, of any positive data immediately connected
with the natural history of the turnip -aphides, I shall avail myself
of information relating to kindred species, which will equally
well illustrate the habits and economy of this family, and supply
us with the means of studying any of its members.-}" Most of the
plant-lice, I believe, come forth in the spring, as soon as the
foliage is apparent, but some are seen even before the leaves are
expanded: at this time they are all wingless females, which have
hatched from eggs that had been laid the foregoing autumn :
these soon disperse, and forcing their rostrums up to the base
in the tender stalks and leaves of plants, begin to produce young
in ten or twelve days, which likewise seem to be wingless females;
and as no males make their appearance until the autumn, when
pairing takes place, it is evident that the females must be preg-
nant at their birth, without sexual intercourse ; and this occurs
for several successive generations. The females produce about
two young ones daily during fifteen or twenty days ; \ and Kollar
says that, in ten days, the third generation from the eggs is able
to bring forth young, comprising winged as well as wingless
females, the former flying away as soon as they have arrived at
maturity, and the latter remaining on the plant where they were
produced. Both the winged and wingless females of the third
generation are able to produce young in eight, and even in four
days, which are capable of the same power as their parent at the
expiration of a similar space of time ; and proceeding thus until
the middle of September, the generations often amount to sixteen
or twenty — thus, from one e^^ only, 729,000,000 of Aphides
would be produced in seven generations, taking thirty as the
average of each brood — twenty JDeing the minimum, and forty the

* In 1793 the Aphides were the chief, and in 1798 the sole cause of the
failure of the crops of hops.— W. Curtis, Linn. Trans., vol. vi. p. 79.

t Schmidberger, in Koliar's Naturgeschichte der schaedlichen In-
secten : vide Aphis pyri, malt, pnini, and persiccu, p. 291.

% On opening the body of a willow-aphis, Mr. W. Curtis counted 61
young ones, large and small, and in another 46.

E 2

52 Observations on Imects affect Imj the Turnip Croj^s.

maximum;* so that if they all lived, everything on the face of
the earth would be covered with them. About the middle of
September, the last generation, consisting of males and females,
is produced; the former generally becoming winged. When
they have attained maturity, the sexes pair, and the females no
longer bring forth young, but lay eggs, which are able to resist
the severity of winter, and these, hatching in the succeeding
spring, again produce viviparous mothers. The autumnal stock,
having provided for the continuation of its race in the following
year, generally dies off before the approach of winter.

Towards the end of March, or the beginning of April, we
often have a succession of cold drying winds from the north and
north-east, at which time the Aphides occasionally make their
appearance so suddenly as to be termed a blight : these must be
the offspring of the autumnal eggs, or broods which had lived
through the winter. Their increase in damp and sultry weather,
at a more advanced period, is equally surprising ; and the uni-
versal diffusion of such myriads soon after a thunder-storm has led,
as with the black caterpillars, to the vulgar error of their having
fallen from the clouds. Electricity probably causes the simul-
taneous appearance of insects in many instances, for the irrita-
bility of the nervous system is excited by the increased action of
oxygen, so that insects, both in the egg and pupa states, may be
more speedily developed, the dormant eggs may thus be called
instantly into life, and the viviparous aphides bring forth their
young simultaneously ; which may in some measure account for
the vast swarms of plant-lice that so frequently cover, in a few
hours, the flowers in our gardens and the crops in our fields.

I have already stated that there are three, if not four, species
of Aphides which live upon the turnips: the first (figs. 1 and 2)
I have found under the rough leaves of the English varieties, as
well as one which I believed to be distinct (fig. 4) ; another
(figs. 5 and 6) appears to be attached to the swedes ; and the last
(figs, 7 and 8) is secreted amongst the flower-stalks. During
the first few generations they are all wingless, but as the summer
advances they appear to arrive at greater perfection, and assume
a more complete state of development, so that eventually indi-
viduals of both sexes are furnished with wings, when they are
capable of doing incredible mischief by the extended field of their
operations ; for, flying about, they form colonies in every direc-
tion, and they are thus enabled to select a proper nidus for the
eggs, which are laid by the last generation in the auiumn, after

* Reaumur (vol. vi. p. 566) has proved that, in five generations, one
aphis may be the progenitor of 5,904,900,000 descendants ; and it is sup-
posed that, in one year, there may be twenty generations. — Vide Kirby and
Spence's Introd. to Ent, vol. i. p. 174.

Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops. 53

the pairing of the sexes. The Aphides generally deposit their
eggs, which are hard, and like parchment, in the most secure
places, under the buds, in the forks of branches of trees, &c.,
and sometimes, it appears, upon the leaves.*

The young are furnished with horns and legs, like their pa-
rents, but they are generally narrower in proportion, and often of
a different colour. Like most insects in their growing state, they
change their skins several times, which are left sticking to the
plants on which they live ; and they are never deprived, from
their birth to their adult state, of the power of locomotion, as the
turnip-beetles and turnip-saw-flies are, which lie quiescent in
their pupa state. The Aphides belong also to an order which
we have not before noticed, called Homoptera, but it formed a
section only of Linnaeus's order Hemipt era : the family is named
Aphidid^, containing, amongst other groups, an extensive genus
called Aphis.

This genus f has two horns (fig. 11), considerably longer than
the body, often as long as the wings, naked and tapermg like
bristles, inserted in front of the face, composed of seven joints,
of which the two first are short and oblong, the following long,
especially the third. Rostrum bent under the breast, short, and
four- jointed, longest in the females (fig. 9/i). Eyes globose and
lateral (9 i) ; ocelli, or simple eyes, three, very remote (9 A:).
Collar of thorax very long in the males. Abdomen ovate-conical
in the males, with two tubes on the fifth segment. Wings four,
transparent, deflexed in repose ; superior twice as long as the
body, ample, with several nervures, the furcate apical cells short :
inferior wings much smaller, with a nervure forming three rays.
Females generally apterous ; the bodies stouter. Legs six
(fig. 12), long and slender, especially the hinder pair : thighs
long (12 Z); shanks longer (m) ; feet short, composed of two
joints, the first scarcely visible (n), terminated by two curved
acute claws (o).

The different species already alluded to I will now proceed to
describe : —

1. Aphis Rapae, Curtis I — the Turnip-leaf plant-louse.

Male — ochraceous; horns moderately long, setaceous, fuscous,
two first joints black, third ochraceous at the base : head blackish,
collar ochraceous and brown, disc of thorax shining black ; abdo-
men greenish, the spiracles or breathing pores brown : tubes long,
slender, ochraceous at the tip ; the apical process of the body

* Mr. W. Curtis saw several small irregular groups of eggs of an Aphis
which were deposited on both sides of the leaves of some Auricula plants,
in November.

t Curtis's British Entomology, fol. and pi. 577.

$ Curtis's Guide to an Arrangement of Brit. Ins., Genus 1047, 18 b.

54 Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops.

ochraceous also : wings iridescent, the nervures light brown :
stigmatic spot long and yellowish; apical cell somewhat oval;
furcate cells elongate-trigonate ; terminal one short : tips of
thighs^ shanks, feet, and claws, black (fig. 1). Female — bright
green, shagreened : horns fuscous, except at the base : eyes, tips
of shanks, and feet^ black (fig. 2).

Abundant beneath the leaves of the English turnip the whole
of July, &c. It is at once distinguished from the other species
by its long tubes and small apical cells of the wings.

2. Aphis dubia, Curtis — the Black-spotted turnip-leaf plant-
louse.

Female ? — dull darkish green, shagreened : antenna? shortish,
third joint ochraceous, the following fuscous : rostrum short and
stout : eyes, ocelli, and two large patches on the collar, black :
each segment of the abdomen has a more or less complete trans-
verse black stripe, interrupted down the middle ; the tubes are
slender and longish, the tail is banded with black, and the conical
apex is of the same colour (fig. 4).

Found, the end of July, beneath the turnip-leaves, with the
former species.

3. Aphis BrassiccT, LiniKSus — the Cabbage and Swedish-
turnip-leaf plant-louse.

Male — generally pea-green : horns setaceous, longish, and
black ; as well as the head, collar, and disc of thorax : several
blackish bands, more or less perfect, across the body : tubes short
and stoutish, black at the base : wings iridescent, stigma pale-
green, nervures strong, piceous, apical cell large, and the first fur-
cate one wider than in A. rapoB : legs black, base of thighs
green (fig. 5). Female — slightly mealy, generally of a yellower
green than the males : third joint of antennae ochraceous, fol-
lowing black : eyes, two large spots on the crown, and one on
each side of the collar, black : abdomen very large and heavy :
spiracles, several dots upon the back, and a few transverse streaks
beyond the middle, black: tubes short and black, as well as the
legs ; base of thighs, greenish (fig. 6) .

As far as my own observation goes, the swedes have suffered
most from the Aphides ; the under-sides of the curled leaves be-
ing sometimes densely covered with them, of all sizes. The old
wingless females are seen resting, in August, September, and
October, surrounded by their young broods, with here and there
a winged male walking lazily over his kindred. The leaves are
frequently at the same time grey with mildew ; but that is a dis-
tinct disease.* I may observe that I have seen myriads of Aphis

* It is said that, in a very dry autumn, early-sown turnips seldom escape
the mildew, which is a species of fungus, forming a whitish powder over
the leaves, and readily brushing off : the leaves thus affected soon become

Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops. 55

hrassic(£ under cabbage-leaves in July, and secreted in the leaves
of the crumpled broccoli as late as the end of November, when
they v/ere of all ages and sizes, both winged and apterous.

4. Aphis Floris-rapae, Curtis— the Turnip-flower plant-louse.

Male — dull pale-green^ dusted with white: antennae mode-
rately long, blackish, excepting the base of the third joint: eyes,
head, disc of the thorax, and abdomen, varied with black ; tubes
short and barrel-shaped: wings similar to those of ^. bras sic ce :
legs ochraceous; apex of thighs, shanks, and feet, black (fig. 7).
Female — dull pale pea-green, powdered with white : rostrum
short and stout : eyes black ; antennse rather short, slightly hairy,
terminal -half brownish : abdomen, with the spiracles, and several
dots forming two rows towards the apex, black ; tubes short, oval,
and black : legs clothed with short hairs ; the feet black (fig. 8).
I regret having to draw my description and figure of the male
from dead specimens ; for the colours, as well as the form of the
body, have changed considerably.

Towards the end of July I found a multitude of these Aphides "^
secreted amongst the short flower-stalks of the early white Jurnip, j
when a few only of the flowers were open. They were of various
sizes, but all apterous at that period ; by the middle of August,
^ however, they had increased to very large companies, with a few
winged specimens. This species is readily distinguished by its
white dusty appearance, with which both sexes are thinly coated,
as well as by their short, conical, and black tubes, or ducts : the
black spots on the backs of some females were larger, and the
horns longer, than in the individual represented in the plate.

Whether any of the above Aphides deposit the sweet liquor
called honey-dew upon the turnip-leaves has not yet been ob-
served ; but I have never seen the ants occupied in visiting the
infested leaves for the purpose of collecting the saccharine matter
which exudes from the two abdominal tubes or ducts, and which
is also discharged from the extremity of the bodies of some
species."''

Protected as the Aphides are in the wrinkles of the leaves,
which they themselves have caused by the pumping up and ex-
travasation of the sap, it is, I think, impossible in the open field
to apply any effectual remedy for the extirpation of this prolific
tribe : when it is in our power, the best plan would be to cut off

yellow, dry, and brittle ; and at an early stage this disease seems to encou-
rage the Aphides, owing to the plants not being healthy and able to resist
such attacks.

* The exudation of this honey, which passes off through the tubes, and
chrystalises in cold weather, may be a necessary means of disposing of any
surplus secretions arising from the constant supply of sap which is passing
through the stomachs of these little leeches, and which they may not have
the power of discharging fast enough by the usual organs.

56 Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops.

the diseased leaves as soon as the presence of the insects is de-
tected, and crush them completely under foot, or put them into
a sack and carry them away to be destroyed with boiling- water.
Watering the plants with equal parts of tobacco-water and lime-
water is said to be the best mode of destroying the Aphides in
gardens ; and if plants he washed with tobacco-water alone —
about half a pound of tobacco to a gallon of hot water — it will
kill the Aphides ; and if applied warm it will kill them the
sooner. Strewing tobacco on hot cinders will soon rid a green-
house of this pest ; and sprinkling tobacco-dust upon trees when
the dew is upon the leaves is an infallible remedy : but these
applications would avail but little in the field even if it were prac-
ticable to employ them. Sprinkling of lime-dust is likewise con-
sidered a very effective cure, but not in wet weather,, when the
lime not only loses its caustic quality, but the Aphides so perfectly
secrete themselves, that it is impossible to annoy them : I have
been astonished to see plants swarming with them on the first
dry day after long- continued and very heavy rains.

Fortunately, no tribe of insects has a greater number of natural
enemies to keep it in check than the plant-lice; for besides
sw^allows, robins, and numerous insectivorous birds, various bugs,
spiders, beetles, and wasps destroy vast quantities ; but the
larvae of the lady-birds, of the bee-like syrphus, of the golden-eyed
flies,, and several minute ichneumons, are pre-eminently useful,
and particularly deserving of our attention : so much so, that on
the continent gardeners collect the larva? of the lady-birds and
syrphidae, and put them upon their rose-trees, &c. ; for as they
subsist entirely upon Aphides, they soon clear a plant of these
troublesome and offensive little pests. I shall now endeavour to
make the agriculturist better acquainted with the instruments pro-
vided by Providence to subdue a tribe of insects, which, without
such parasites, would, like the plagues of Egypt, cover the land.

One of the most conspicuous and efficient enemies are the
CoccinellcE, of which about thirty different species have been
noticed in England,* varying amongst themselves in colour and
markings, to as great an extent as any of our domestic animals.
These pretty beetles, called lady-birds and lady-cows, seem to be
under the especial care of the Creator : for they have secured the
affections and good feeling of our children, and are amongst the
few insects which in this country we are taught in our infancy not
to regard with disgust or horror. The same kindly feeling is ex-
tended to them in France, where they are almost held sacred,
being called vache a Dieu, and betes de la Vierge, or '' God's
cows," and '^ the Virgin's insects." The lady-birds hybernate

* Curtis"s Brit. Ent., fol. and pi. 208, and Guide Genus, 438.

Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops. 57

and pass the winter in the crevices of paling and trunks of trees,
under loose bark, in dry leaves, on the ground, &c., and are
therefore ready, on the shortest notice, to come from their hiding
places, from which they are allured even by the sunny days of
December ; and on the approach of spring are amongst our
first vernal visitors, when the female lays her little eggs beneath
leaves, close together, in clusters of about fifty : they are cylin-
drical, buff-coloured, and set on one end; from these, little
sprawling larvse soon issue, of a lead colour, gaily ornamented
with orange or scarlet spots, and are soon spread over the leaves
of trees, palings, grass in fields, indeed, everywhere in the vicinity
of the plant-lice, to which they are much more formidable than
their parents. Their method of attacking the Aphides is curious.
I have seen one of the latter struggling whilst this little insect
alligator threw his fore legs about it, and was greatly amused at
the skill it exhibited : for, fearing that the Aphis might escape, it
gradually slid along to the wings, which were closed, and imme-
diately began to bite them, so that in a very short time they were
rendered useless, being matted together : it then returned in
triumph to the side of its helpless victim, and seizing the thorax
firmly in its grasp, it ate into the side, coolly putting its hind leg
over those of the Aphis, whose convulsive throbs annoyed its re-
lentless enemy. These larvae are full grown in about a fortnight
or three weeks, when they are from a quarter to a third of an inch
long and upwards; they are then slate -coloured and yellow, with
numerous black spots and hairy tubercles down the back, inter-
mixed with a few scarlet spots (fig. 13*). They soon retire to a

^-^ leaf or some secure spot, and, attaching themselves by the tail,
change to pupse (fig. 14) of a shining black colour, with a row
of orange spots down the back : thus they remain during another

^fortnight or three weeks, when the inmate bursts through her cell,
and appears again a perfect lady-bird, t^

Attracted by the swarins"13f*'Aphides m the hop-gardens, they
sometimes congregate in myriads j and having regaled themselves
and deposited their eggs upon the plants, they wing their way in
large companies, often to perish on our shores in the autumn,*
or to disperse themselves over our turnip and corn fields, where we
often see their scarlet jackets sparkling upon the bright green
leaves. These beetles belong to the Order Coleoptera, and
to the Family Coccinellid^, and form the Genus Cocci-
NELLA of Linnaeus. There are two species which seem from their
numbers to be most beneficial to man.

5. C. bipunctata, Linn. The two-spotted lady-bird is convex

* In 1807, the shore at Brighton, and all the watering-places on the south
coast, was literally covered with them. Kirby and Spence's Int. to Ent.,
vol. i. p. 258.

58 Ohsei-vations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops.

/^ and black, excepting the scarlet wing-cases, and on the centre of
e"ach of them is a black dot ; at the inside of the eyes there is a
cream-coloured spot, and a larger one on each side of the thorax,
with two minute dots uniting at the base, of the same colour
(fig. 15). This insect is so variable in colour, and the individuals
are so very dissimilar, that it is called Coccinella dispar by many
authors, some specimens being blacky with a large red patch on
each shoulder, and a round spot of the same colour on each wing-
case, with the margin only of the eyes and of the thorax whitish ;
and between these extreme varieties will be found every gradation
from red to black : they are all about 2^ lines long.

6. C. septempunctata, Linn. The seven -spotted lady-bird is
larger, very convex, being hemispherical, black, with bright brick-
red wing-cases, having a large black spot in the centre of the base,
with three smaller dots on each, forming a triangle : there are two
cream-coloured dots at the base of the head, and a large one at
each of the anterior angles of the thorax (fig. 16). It is more than
Sg lines long, and nearly 3 broad, and varies but little, the spots
sometimes being smaller than in our figure, and rarely vanishing.

The next, perhaps, in importance amongst the parasites is a
diminutive fly (fig. 18), which hovers about plants infested by
the Aphides ; and the female soon settling amongst them, begins to
examine the herd with her vibrating horns, and having fixed on a
female Aphis, which is not already punctured, she bends down the
apex of her body, and pierces the insect with her ovipositor, which
is invisible to the naked eye : she then proceeds to another, de-
positing a single eg^ in each, and thus daily inoculates a consider-
able number. As the Aphis imbibes the juice of the plant, the
little maggot which has hatched in her body hourly increases in
size, growing with her growth, until the exhausted Aphis dies,
leaving its horny, shining, and inflated skin sticking by its rostrum
and legs to the plant, looking like a little tawny pearl : the parasite
then changes to a pupa, and, having completed its various trans-
formations, it becomes a perfect fly in about eight days, and eats
through the side of its cell, often leaving a round lid attached and
open like a door (fig. 17).

These insects belong to the Order Hymenoptera, of the
Family Ichneumonides adsciti, and were described by
Linnaeus under the name of Ichneumon ajjhidum. The species I
have bred from the turnip aphides is now described as

7. Aphidius (Trionyx) Rapse, Curtis * Antennae shorter than
the body, composed of fourteen joints, basal joint beneath, as well
as the mouth, ochraceous ; head and thorax shining black ; abdo-

* Curtis's Brit. Ent., pi. 383, and the Guide Gen. 562 6 and 547, where
fifty-four British species of Aphidii are recorded, fornoing the subgenera
Praon, Ephedrus Toxares, Monoctonus, Trionyx^ and Aphidius of HaUday.

Observatio7is on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops. 59

men spindle-shaped and pitchy in colour, attached to the trunk by
a narrow ochraceous petiole; wings four, iridescent; superior,
with a narrow fuscous stigma, from which issues beneath a short
curved nervnre, and there is a large elongate-trigonate cell at the
base ; legs, six, slender and bright ochreous, variegated with dark
brown; length, 1| line ; expanse of wings, 2^ (fig. 18 q).

As there are many generations of these flies in a summer, it
follows that they are most formidable enemies to the plant-lice ;
and Providence, watchful of all his works, and regarding in the
smallest as well as the greatest that balance which preserves the
order of the universe, to avert the total annihilation of the feeble
Aphides, has provided numerous other parasitic flies to destroy the
destroyers, and again keep them in check. The jlpliidii are such
constant attendants upon infested plants, that I scarcely ever
notice any unaccompanied by the horny shells of the defunct plant-
lice ; and even in a green-house I have seen nearly as many of
these parasites as there were of the Aphides.

It is impossible to advance a step in the natural history of in-
sects without finding so much to interest and admire, that it is
difficult to refrain from entering fully into the subject : fearing,
however, that I may become tiresome to the general reader, I
will allude as briefly as possible to the little flies which destroy
the maggots of the full-fed Aphidii, glutted with the vitals of the
plant-lice : they are all Hymenoptera ; and whilst they fly about
to reconnoitre the aphides, no sooner have they met with one that
contains a maggot than they pierce the already indurated shell,
and deposit an eg^ within : as soon as it hatches, it commences
feeding upon the parasitic maggot, or more probably on the
quiescent pupa ; and instead of an Aphidius, one of the following
insects bursts from its dark tomb, namely, Ceraphron Carpenteri,
Cyrfogaster vulgaris* and Colax aj^hidiirY

8. Ceraphron (Megaspilus) Carpenteri, Curtis.'^ Black, head
and thorax pubescent; body shining; horns long in the male,
and eleven-jointed, the joints hairy, and more or less serrated,
excepting the two first and the last ; simply clavate in the female ;
wings, four, with a large brown semiorbicular stigma on the su-
perior, from which issues a short curved nervure, being the
only one ; legs pitch-colour, apex of thighs, the shanks and feet
ochraceous; length, two-thirds of a line; expanse If.

I have frequently bred this insect from aphides, containing, no
doubt, the parasitic Aphidii.

9. Cyrtogaster vulgaris, Wcdker.^ Female with clavate black

* Also Coruna clavata of Walker, in Eiit. Mag., vol. i. p. 380.

t Curtis's Brit. Ent., pi. and fol. 1G6.

X Curtis's Brit. Ent., fol. 249, and Guide Gen. 581, 7.

§ Ent. Mag. vol. i.,p.382; Curt. Guide Gen., G24, 1.

60 Ohservcdions on Insects ajfectbig the Turnip Crops.

horns, composed of thirteen joints ; head and thorax bright green,
shagreened ; abdomen short, ovate, pointed, very glossy bottle-
green ; wings nerveless, excepting a single nervure near the
anterior margin of the superior, which forms a little clavate
branch beyond the middle ; legs pitch- colour, nearly 1 line long
and 2 broad.

10. Colax aphidii, Curtis.'^ Horns pale brown, hairy, thir-
teen-jointed, apicial joint lance-shaped ; head and thorax shining
bluish-green ; abdomen more yellow-green, very glossy, de-
pressed, clavate ; wings similar to the last, but the button of the
nervure is larger ; legs ochraceous ; hinder thighs brownish at
the middle ; length, | ; expanse, 1 j line.

Both the above insects belong to the Family CiiALCiDiDiE.
I have bred the last from the indurated skins of the aphides
which had been infested by the Aphidii. When touched, this
fly skips about.

It is not a little remarkable that some of the CynijndcB or gall-
flies, which form the ''Oak-apples," " Robin's pincushions," <5cc.,
prey in the same way upon the plant-lice, leaving their horny
skins sticking to the leaves on which they fed. Amongst them I
shall describe two only from my own collection.

11. Cynips quercus-inferus ? Linnaeus.^ Pitch colour, shin-
ing ; head and thorax rugose ; horns and mouth bright rust-
colour ; the former composed of fourteen joints ; wings iridescent,
with the nervures pale reddish-brown, having an elongate-trigonate
cell on the margin, with an indistinct minute arcolet at its inner
angle ; legs ochraceous ; length, 1^ ; expanse 3 lines.

This was bred from aphides by the late Mr. T. Carpenter.

12. equips fulviceps, Ci/T-f/s. J Glossy black ; horns longish ;
thirteen-jointed ; fuscous, ochraceous at the base ; head and legs
bright ochraceous ; wings iridescent ; nervures bright brown ;
arcolet none ; length, J ; expanse, nearly 2 lines.

I have bred several of this pretty species from aphides ; and
Jurine has figured another in his '' Hymenopteres" of the same
habits, called by him C. eryfhrocephalus, pi. xii. gen. 40.

We will now return to the insects which destroy the aphides,
amongst which are some larger species of hymenopterous flies,
belonging to the Family of Crabronid^e, which it is necessary
to notice and describe here. §

13. Trypoxylon figulus, Linn. :\\ is shining black, clothed with

* Brit. Ent., pi. and fol. 166, and Guide Gen., 641.
t Curt. Guide Gen., 564, 14.

t Brit. Ent., pi. and fol. 688; Guide Gen., 564, 27.

^ Those who wish to identify these insects with greater certainty must
consult the plates and descriptions referred to.

(I Curtis"s Brit. Ent., fol. and pi. 652, and Guide Gen. 682, 1.

Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops. 61

silky whitish pubescence ; the horns are short and thirteen-jointed
in the males, twelve-jointed in the females ; the body is rather long,
forming a club, being slender at the base, and the edges of four
of the segments are hoary; the four wings are dusky at then-
extremities ; and the brown nervures form six distinct cells in the
superior : it varies in size from | to J an inch in length, and the
wings expand from 5 to 8 lines, or nearly £ths of an inch.

These insects are abundant upon old posts, palings, or out-
houses, gates, barns, stable-doors, &c., in which they form
burrows to deposit their eggs, from the middle of May to the end
of summer : it appears that they collect masses of aphides, pro-
bably to feed their young, which also subsist upon dead spiders,
carried into the nests by the parent flies.

14. Pemphredon unicolor, Fah'"- Black, shining, clothed
with greyish hairs ; head large, nose silvery ; horns short, curved,
thirteen-jointed in the males, twelve -jointed in the females; head
and thorax punctured ; body oval, pointed and attached to the
trunk by a narrow neck; wings, four; iridescent but smoky,
superior with eleven cells, formed by blackish nervures ; length
J of an inch; expanse 5 lines.

This, as well as a larger species, called Pemphredon luguhris
of Fabricius, may be seen during the summer months, carryirig
immense quantities of aphides into straws in thatch, and holes in
wood, posts, &c., to feed their young maggots upon. The follow-
ing species, and likewise an allied one, have similar habits. f

15. Diodontus gracilis, Curtis.X Smaller and more slender
than Pemphredon, to which it is nearly related, but is distinguished
by its notched upper lip : it is black and shining ; the head and
thorax are punctured ; lower part of face clothed with silvery hau'S
in the males; the four feelers and a stripe outside of the jaws
yellowish-white ; the body is elliptical and pointed, attached to
the thorax by a short neck; wings transparent; nervures and
stigma pitchy ; tips of thighs, base and tips of shanks and the feet
ochraceous, excepting the hinder pair ; length i of an inch ;
expanse 4 lines.

16. Psen atratus, Panz:^ black, shining ; antennae thirteen-
jointed, curved in the female, rusty beneath, especially in the
males ; face silvery with hairs ; head and thorax finely punctured ;
body ovate, conical at the apex, attached by a short slender neck
at the base ; wings four, transparent, beautifully iridescent, the

* Curt. Brit. Ent., pi. and fol. 632, and Kennedy in Lond. and Edinb.
Phil. Mag., Jan. 1837, p. 18.

f Diodontus corniger, Shuck., and Phil. Mag., January, 1837, p. 17.

% Curt. Brit. Ent., pi. and fol. 496, Guide Gen., 685\ 5.

§ Curt. Brit. Ent., second edition, fol. and pi. 25, Guide Gen. 691, 2.

62 Observations on Insects affecting the Tumi]) Crops.

nervures and stig^ma blackish ; fore shanks and feet sometimes
ochraceous ; leng:th, 2 J lines ; expanse 4|.

Mr. A. Kennedy observed the males of this species flying about
the thatch of a summer-house and the neighbouring shrubs, at
ClaptoUj in thousands, the beginning of July, and the females
became numerous about the 1 0th : they employed the open straws
of the thatch to deposit their prey in, which amounted to a
hundred aphides in a single straw, containing cells with partitions
made apparently of the scrapings of the inside of the straw
cemented together. The eggs deposited in them by the Pse?i are
white and semilransparent, and are attached to the abdomen of
an aphis near the bottom of a cell.* I bred these flies likewise
from straws out of the roof of a summer-house at Bristol, the end
of June.

We now come to a set of insects, which, like the lady-birds,
begin to feed upon the aphides as soon as they escape from the
egg, and from that time are constantly hunting after them, until
they change to beautiful flies, one of which is called the Golden-
eye, These larvae are ferocious little animals (fig. 19*), named
by the French "lions des pucerons," or plant-lice lions. Some
clothe themselves, like Hercules, with the skins of their victims
(fig. 19j, and others with the green and delicate lichens which
cover old paling, and the trunks and arms of trees, so that unless
the larvae move, it is impossible to detect them ; and thus, con-
cealed from the prying search of the smaller birds, they lie in
ambush for their prey : but when they are encamped upon a leaf,
amongst the sluggish aphides, they seize them with their long and
powerful jaws, and will devour the largest of them in half a
minute. The food of this voracious larva, however, is not con-
fined to the aphides ; for two which I found at the end of August,
on being placed in a box, immediately attacked each other, the
conqueror making a meal of his companion, and soon after sucking
the contents out of a caterpillar three-fourths of an inch long, leav-
ing only their skins. These larvae vary considerably in colour,
being whitish or fuscous, with brown or orange spots, some hav-
ing the sides of their bodies furnished with sixteen fleshy tubercles,
producing a spreading bunch of hairs : they have a pair of slender
horns, two long stout curved jaws, and a pair of long slender-
jointed feelers ; besides their six feet, the apex of the abdomen
is prehensile, forming, as it were, a seventh foot, which has the
power of adhering to very smooth substances. After feeding for fif-
teen or sixteen days, they spin a fine silken whitish cocoon (fig. 20),
which is often clothed with the bits of lichen which formed
a shield to the larvae : they vary from the size of pearl barley to a

* Phil. Mag., Jan. 1837, p. 18.

Ohservaiiovs on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops. 63

small pea^ and are attached to leaves of plants, &c. ; in these
they change to a pupa, and in about three weeks the flies come
forth in summer ; but the autumnal ones remain through the
winter in that torpid state. The case, it may be observed, is not
spun from the mouth, as the silk-worm forms its cocoon, but
from the apex of the body, similar to spiders ; and it is astonishing^
considering the very ample wings of some of the flies, how they
can possibly be arranged in so small a space as they occupy in
their little cells.

The flies are not long-lived, and the female deposits her eggs
in a very remarkable way, in order to protect them from the
attacks of parasitic and other insects. They are placed in groups
of ten or twelve, on various parts of the leaves, stalks, &c., and
so much resemble vegetable productions, that they have been
mistaken for the capsules or seed-vessels of some moss. It appears
that the female being supplied with a glutinous fluid in the
ovary, she places the apex of her body to the edge of a leaf, and
lifting it up, draws out a transparent thread, not thicker than a
hair, sometimes to the length of an inch, the egg forming a little
oval club at the tip (fig. 22). I ihink it extremely probable that
they are deposited while the female is on the wing by an undu-
lating flight, which brings her at intervals in contact with the leaf
or object beneath her; but I believe no one has detected this in-
sect in the act of depositing the eggs.

The flies which we are alluding to are included in an Order
called Neuroptera, of the Family HEMEROBiD^i, and consti-
tute the Linnaean Genus Hemerobius, which is now divided
into four genera,* two of which, Chrysopa-j- of Leach, and
Hemerobius,^ are the groups which produce the larvae whose
history we have just given. The former genus contains ten or
twelve British species of beautiful flies, generally green, and well
known by their prominent, splendid eyes, whence they are called
with us golden-eyes. They fly principally at night, and are
heavy on the wing by day, so that they are easily caught ; and on
being touched they emit a most offensive odour. I will now de-
scribe the commonest species, which is named by Linnaeus

17. C. Perla. It is a palish green; the horns are slender, as
long as the body, and composed of numerous small joints ; the
eyes very prominent, golden-green ; body moderately long ; wings
four, deflexed in repose, twice as long as the body, transparent
but greenish, reflecting the most beautiful rose-colour and rich
yellow, reticulated with innumerable hairy nervures, the trans-
verse ones blackish near the base ; legs six, very short and slender.

* Curt. Guide Gen. 739, 740, 740^ and 741.
t Curt. Brit. Ent., fol. and pi. 520. % Ibid., 202.

64 Observations on Insects affectlncj the Turnip Crojjs.

Male, 4 lines long, wings expanding 1^ inch; female, ^ an inch
lono^, expanding nearly 1| inch. (Fig. 21.)

This species is common about hedges, fields, gardens, and
orchards in June, July, and August. Last May I found one
of the larvae : its back was clad with lichen, the skins of cater-
pillars in fragments, and apparently its excrement : it spun a
white silken cocoon of exceedingly fine texture the beginning of
June, to the outside of which adhered the materials already
mentioned ; and in a week or ten days after, I found in the box
a fine specimen of the golden-eyed fly, of such dimensions that it
appeared incredible it should have been produced from so small
a pupa. A white transparent case or shroud, like those of the
May-flies, was lying by it, showing that it had emerged as a
pseud-imago.*

The other genus still retains the appellation of Hemerobius,
and is more extensive, comprising, it is supposed, upwards of
thirty species. Their economy appears to be precisely the same
as that of Chrysopa ; for a larva which I found the end of last
September was feeding upon Aphides in company with the
maggots of the Syrphidae. It was of a bright yellow, with mark-
ings of a clear rust-colour : it was very active, continually moving
its head from side to side, and eventually produced a species
named by the late Dr. Leach.

18. H. obscurus. It is ochraceous; the horns are rather
longer than the body, slender, hairy, composed of numerous
globose joints; eyes very prominent; head and trunk with a
brown stripe on each side ; abdomen of the same colour : wings
nearly twice as long as the body, very much deflexed when at
rest, slightly tinged with fuscous, but with a beautiful blue and
rose-colour; superior, with numerous pilose nervures dotted with
dark brown, having two irregular waved transverse lines of a pale
brown-colour beyond the middle ; inferior wings of a lovely rose-
colour, the margin alone iridescent and brownish : legs 6, and
rather short : about 3 lines long, and expanding 8.

These insects frequent every hedgerow and plantation, and
from thence they fly by night into fields, meadows, gardens, &c.,
aud they are sometimes plentiful in turnip- fields. They are
always very brisk and lively on the approach of a thunder-storm ;
but when caught, they lie with their wings closed and compressed,
and their horns and legs drawn up, as if they were dead, some of
them looking, in that inanimate state, like dead leaves.

We shall close this account of the insects which feed upon
Aphides, by giving the history of the larvae of several flies called
Syrphi, which appear to be more numerous than the lady-birds

* A state between the Nympha and the perfect insect or Imago.

Obsenmtion? on Insects affect incj the Tarnip Crojys. G5

or the Aphis -lions^ and, being- very expert, they cause greater
havoc amongst the plant-Uce than probably any of those ah'eady
recorded. The parent flies are so numerous, as to be in a great
measure the cause, I beheve, of the incessant vibration of the air
or buzzing which we hear in the country in fine, still, sunny days
in the summer and autumn months: they belong to an Order
called DiPTERA and to the Family Syrphtd^., which is divided
into several Genera, and amongst them are Sc.eva''' and Chei-
LOSiA, containing upwards of fifty species if the larvae of these
are found during the spring, summ.er, and autumn in company
with those of the lady-birds : they are fat, fleshy maggots, some-
times green, at others yellow, variegated with orange ; and their
skins are so delicate, that the circulation of the fluids and the
colour of the intestines are distincdy visible even to the naked
eye. When the maggots first emerge from the e^^, they are
little inoffensive-looking creatures, scarcely visible, surrounded as
they are by the indolent, helpless Aphides, with their bleached,
cast-off skins scattered over the leaves ; but as soon as their appe-
tites call them into action, they thrust out their heads and necks
like leeches, fasten upon the nearest Aphis, and holding it up in
the air (fig. 23), they suck out the contents of their victim wdth
evident satisfaction. In this way one hungry maggot will devour
a hundred Aphides in an hour : when satiated, he draws himself
up, and lying close to the leaf, he enjoys his repose. Having
grown to his full size, he attaches his tail to a leaf, tree, wall, or
other object, and becomes a horny pupa in his own indurated
skin, which assumes the shape of a pear, of a dull colour (fig. 24).
Amongst the parent flies the most conspicuous are ScfEva Pyrastri,
S. Rihesii, S. hcdteata, and Ctie'dosia scripta, which I will cha-
racterise.

19. S. Pyrastri, Linn. (fig. 25) is a large fly with two little
black horns in front of its ochreous face, and two large copper-
coloured eyes, nearly covering the whole head in the males, but
not meeting on the crown in the females ; the trunk and a lobe
behind called the scutal are bottle-green, densely clothed with
short, pale, velvety hairs ; the body is similarly clothed, flat, of a
good size and oval, deep black, with three long, yellowish spots
on each side, curved, and nearly meeting on the back ; the two
last segments are edged with the same colour : it has only two
wino-s, which are as clear as Mass, but iridescent, with several fine
brown nervures, forming long cells; just below their base, on
each side, is a little clubbed process, of an ochraceous colour,
called a poiser ; the six legs are pale rust-colour, the thighs black

* Curtis's Brit. Ent. fob and pi. 509.
t Curtis's Guide Genera, 1240 and 1241.
VOL. ITT. F

66 Ohservations on Insects affectimj the Turnip ( 'rops.

at the base, the hinder entirely black, excepting- the tips ; the feet,
which are brown, have five joints each, they are terminated by
two little clavvS and two lobes, called pulvilli ; the fly is from
J an inch to 9 lines long:, ^^^^ expands from 1 inch to 13 lines.

This is a fly which is seen from June to the end of October
hovering over wild and garden flowers in fine weather, and rest-
ing in cloudy days on trunks of trees and paling, with 'their wings
closed and lying upon their backs. Some idea may be formed of
the numbers of the larvae, and the consequent benefit derived
from their operations, when we state that on the 30th July, 1818,
which was a very hot day, these flies were in such swarms that they
fjuite cov^ered the fishermen's boats at sea off Broadstairs, and they
were equally abundant at Ramsgate and the Nore. When thus
congregated, insects fly in one direction, not even avoiding ob-
jects that lie in their course ; and in the above instance, it
appears, that they were bound to the hop-gardens in Kent, where
the crops often fail through the effects of the Aphides, as we
have already observed. The maggots of this species are green,
and I found them in July of the following year in some abund-
ance on the sea-cabbages, Brassica oleracea, which grow under
the cliffs near Dover. Many of them had been stung by a little
parasitic fly called Microcjaster Lineola/^^ the maggots of which
came out of the Scaeva larvae, and formed little elliptical silken
cocoons almost white.

20. S. Ribesii, Linn, is a similar fly in form, but smaller ; the
head is yellowish, the nose horny- and shining; eyes coppery;
horns rust-colour, black above ; trunk bottle-green, scutel yellow ;
body black, with a large yellow or orange spot on each side of
the base, then follow two broad and two narrow bands; the legs
are bright ochraceous, the base of the thighs fuscous ; wings the
same as in S. Pyrastri ; length 5J- lines, expanse 11 lines.

This fly is abundant everywhere in England in the summer,
especially in July : it is equally common in Scotland and Ireland,
where I have taken many specimens.

21. S. balteata, Linn, is more slender in its form; the head
and thorax are brassy-green, the latter with two greyish lines
down the back ; the face is ochraceous and hoary ; horns bright
rust-colour, black above ; eyes as usual ; scutel ochraceous^ more
or less brassy at the base ; body elliptical, shining black, with two
bright ochraceous spots on each side of the base, and uniting
outside : there are also six bands of the sam^e colour, the first and
third being narrow ; wings as usual ; legs and under-side of body
entirely ochraceous; length 4 J lines, 10 in expanse.

During July, August, and September these flies are abundant

* Curtis's Guide Gen. 554, 1, and Brit.Ent. fok and pi. 321.

Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops. 67

in every garden, field, and hedge, and I have bred them even in
October. The maggots are yellowish-white, with broken scarlet
lines down the back, and black spots and marks between them,
which are caused by the food in the intestines shining through ;
the head is furnished beneath with two minute hooks or teeth,
and there is a tubercle at the rump composed of two lobes^ with
which the animal adheres to any object ; and there are minute
bristles on the sides. Out of one of the pupre came three or
four little parasitic maggots, which lived through the winter ; and
the first week of April they produced some small flies, very
similar to No. 8, ^vhich I take to be the Ceraphron Syrphii of
Bouche,* who bred them likewise from the pupae of S. Rihesii.
One of the Ichneumonidae, called by Gravenhorst Bassns albo-
signatus,^ also lays its eggs in the larvae of ^S*. halteata.

22. S. scripta, Linn, is much smaller than the foregoing in-
sects, and the males have a much narrower body : the face is
yellow ; the horns orange ; thorax dull green, the sides and
scutel yellow; body long and narrow in the males, with two
bright ochraceous spots towards the base, two bands of the same
colour farther down ; the penultimate segment has a V-shaped
ochraceous mark on the centre, with a dot on each side, and the
apex is also ochraceous, with a few black dots; the legs are
entirely ochraceous; length 4f lines, expanse 7 lines.

This and many allied species are abundant everywhere, espC'
cially in meadows and ditches, from Midsummer to October. I
may mention also that the Baron De GeirJ] describes and figures a
blood-red Acarus or mite which seizes the Aphides by the back,
belly, or neck, as a ferret would a rat, and sucks out all the juices ;
and I find that earwigs assist in diminishing the plant-lice, by
feeding upon them in the curled leaves, where those troublesome
insects shelter themselves after their nocturnal excursions.

Severe frosts are exceedingly beneficial in the destruction of
noxious insects, and although the Aphides can resist cold to a
considerable amount, having survived the weather when the
thermometer was as low as 29° Fahr., not only are immense
quantities destroyed by intense cold, but a check is given in
another way to their increase, for in mild winters little doubt can
be entertained that they not only survive, but are actually propa-
gating ; and Mr. W. Curtis very sensibly remarks, that as their
enemies, on the contrary, exist, but do not multiply, during such
periods, the Aphides get the start of them, and thus obtain an

* Bouche's Naturg. der Insecten, p. 175, pi. 7. fig. 33 and 36 to 39 and
fig. 41.

t Curtis's Guide Gen. 520, 20.

% Memoires, v. 7, p. 122, pi. 7, fig. 13, U.

f2

()8 Observatiufis on Lisecls affecting the Turnip Cro])^.

ascendancy, which once acquhed is not easily overcome.'^' I have
been surprised to see how slio^htlj Aphides are affected by wet ;
and I find that the same careful observer of nature tried a few
experiments to ascertain how far they could resist the action of
water. Mr. W. Curtis first immersed some Aphides attached to
a willow-twicr in water for sixteen hours, which did not appear to
incommode them in the least, for on being- taken out and placed
in the sun, they increased and multiplied shortly afterwards ; but
when they were brushed off, they could not so lona^ sustain the
effect of water. He afterwards immersed two other sorts of
Aphides, which at the expiration of twelve hours were all dead :
this difference of power in the vital principle is very remarkable,
and not easily explained. Their capability of resisting some
g-ases or effluvia is likewise very astonishing: for instance, I took
some Aphides from the Southernwood, both winged and apterous,
and corked them up in a quill containing a piece of camphor,
which produced an atmosphere that killed most insects in an
hour, but the Aphides were walking about unaffected, after being
confined there twenty- four hours !

Drosopiiila-}- and Phytomyza.J — Tiirnip-Ieaf Miners,

Turnip-leaves are often more or less covered with wdiitish blisters,
which are caused by the maggots of two different kinds of flies,
both of which belong to the Order Diptera and the Family
MusciDTE : it does not appear that they do niuch mischief to the
crops, but it may be questionable whether the maggots do not
occasionally generate disease in cattle feeding upon the turnip-
tops, when their numbers are in excess. The first species, which
is called Drosophila, belongs to a group, the larvfc of some living
in vinegar and acid beer, many breeding in Boleti ; and others,
like the one before us, live upon the parenchyma or pulp of the
leaves of various plants : some of the flies are frequently found
in cellars, and are also seen running over the v»'indovvS in our
houses.

It is not a little singular that, as far as my observations go, the
maggots of the turnip Drosophila form their dwellings so care-
fully under the upper cuticle of the leaves that not a trace of
them can be seen on the under-side, whilst the liabits of the larvre
of the Phytomyzcp are just the reverse : the economy of the former
I will now investigate. On the 22nd of last July I saw many
leaves of some English turnips disfigured by large pale blisters
on various parts of the upper side (fig-. 26) : upon examination I

* Trans. Linn. Soc. v. 6, p. 84.

t Curt. Brit. Ent. fol. and pi. 473, Guide Gen. 1334.

X Curt. Brit. Ent. fol. and fol. pi. 393, Guide Gen. 1348.

Observations on Insects affecting the Turn/p Crojos. 69

found that many of them were empty, but in two or three I de-
tected maggots by holding the leaf up to the light (fig. 27) ; they
were of a pale green colour, the mouth being armed with two
little horny-hooks ; one changed to a pupa (fig. 28) inside of the
blister the same day, and another I found dead shortly after at
the bottom of the tin-box in which they were placed, and in a day
or two I saw another pale greenish maggot in a box with a blis-
tered leaf, which soon buried itself under the cuticle, and changed
to a pupa of a chestnut colour, with two divaricating horns on
the head (fig. 29), and on the 4th of August I bred from it a fly
(fig. 30), which agrees pretty well with Fallen's description of

23. Drosophila flava : it is ochraceous, sparingly covered with
black bristles, the face is silky white, eyes black, and the lobes at
the apex of the abdomen are black ; the seta or bristle of the
horns is likewise black and only feathered above, and there is a
slate-coloured spot on the crown where the three little eyes are
placed: down the centre of the thorax is a light rusty line^ with
the indication of one on each side ; the legs are very pale ochreous;
the wings are yellowish but iridescent, and the nervures are pale-
brown : length 1 line, expanse 2 J.

In October numbers of the leaves amongst the Swedish turnips
likewise exhibited pale patches, which were almost white, or the
colour of parchment above, but, as usual, no indications of their
being infested were visible beneath. In these blisters I found
sometimes as many as three maggots, which I presume were the
offspring of a second brood : they shortly became brown pupae at
the bottom of the box, from which I am induced to infer that they
often come out of the blisters when arrived at maturity, and
enter the earth to undergo their transformation to the chrysalis
state. From some of the earlier pupae I obtained two little
parasitic hymenopterous flies : one appears to be the Ceraphron
niger''' of my cabinet; and the other is, I believe, Miscogaster
virldis of Walker. f

The other fly called Piiytomyza, is bred from the under-sides
of the turnip- leaves, where the maggots form long irregular
galleries (fig. 31) inside of the lower cuticle, and these miners
are not visible on the upper-side of the leaf One of the maggots
changed the third week in July to a dark-brown pupa (fig. 32)
beneath the epidermis, and it v^as furnished with two small horns
at one end : on the 28th a fly came forth, which was the

24. Piiytomyza nigricornis of Macquart (fig. 33) : it was slate-
black ; the head and thorax were sprinkled with a few black
bristles ; the horns are brown, with a naked bristle ; the head is
pale ochraceous, excepting a spot on the crown; the tips of the

* Curt. Guide Genus 581 b, 41. t Ibid. Gen. 638, 17.

70 Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops.

thighs and the poiscrs are yellowish-white ; the wings are pale
slate-colour, with two strong and two faint nervures : length 1 line,
expanse 2 J.

Cerostoma Xylostella. — The Turnij) Dia7nond-back Moth.*

We now arrive at the history of a small moth, which is very
abundant in turnip -fields, and, according to one of my corre-
spondents, occasionally does considerable mischief. The cater-
pillar (fig. 34) is spindle-shaped, of a delicate green, sometimes
inclining to yellow, vvith a grey head ; it has six pectoral, eight
abdominal, and two anal feet, all of vv^hich are green. On the
continent it lives principally upon the upright honeysuckle,
Lonicera xylosteum, and attacks a great number of culinary plants,
but seems to prefer the cabbage and the turnip. Godart says
that it lives in a slight web generally attached to the under sur-
face of the leaves, and when it is about to become a chrysalis,
it spins within the web a cocoon like network, in which it changes
to a yellow testaceous pupa (fig. 35) : the moth comes forth in
about eighteen days : Linnaeus gave it the name of Tinea xylo-
stella, from its feeding upon a honeysuckle v/hich bears that name.
It still belongs to the Family TineidtE, but by modern natural-
ists it has been separated from that immense group of Lepidop-
TERA, and is now described by Latreille and others as

25. Cerostoma xylostella. When at rest the wings are closed
and deflexed, and the horns are projected forward in a straight
line (fig. 36). It is more or less brown, the slender horns are
white, a tuft of scales on the crown of the head and the disc of
the thorax are whitish-ochre : the superior wings, which are long
and narrow, have three or four pale spots upon the anterior
margin towards the apex, and all along the inner margin is an
indented white or ochraceous stripe, which forms when the wings
are closed two or three diamonds upon the back ; the fringe is
purplish, variegated with black scales ; the inferior wings, which
are lance-shaped, are of an ash- colour, with a very long fringe ;
the body is slender and of the same colour, the apex ochraceous :
length 2 J lines, expanse 7 lines : fig. 37 magnified.

This species, says M. Duponchel,-j- is spread over all Europe,
and has two generations in a year ; the one appears in June and
the other at the end of summer. In this country there seems to
be a succession of broods from midsummer until the approach of
winter, for I have taken specimens in the gardens near London in
the end of June, at Dover in July, Scotland in August, and fre-
quently amongst turnips in September and October in Suffolk

* Curtis's Brit. Ent. fol. and pi. 420 ; Guide Gen. 1031, 4.
t Godart's Lepidopteres de France, v. 8, p. 214.

Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops. 71

and Essex. Monsieur Desjardins says'^ that it exists also in the
Mauritius^ where it makes very great ravages in the kitchen-
gardens ; but whether it is indigenous to that island^ or has been
transjiorted from Europe with the cabbage-plants that the people
cultivate there, is unknown. I have little doubt that this was the
caterpillar which Mr. Dalgavings of Forfarshire mentioned as
having seriously injured his crop of turnips in 1826. I am,
however^ particularly desirous of calling the attention of agricul-
turists to this enemy of the turnip-crop in consequence of having
received the following communication from Mr. J. Weaver, who
lives in the neighbourhood of Petersfield, Hants: — ^^The litde
moth which I have sent is one from a host of small green cater-
pillars which have been exciting some surprise here this summer.
About the beginning of August I was directed to a field of turnips
said to be infested by the ' niggers :' they proved however to be
myriads of tiny larva?, averaging perhaps half an inch in length
each, slender, and somewhat tapering at both ends, and of a green
colour when full fed. They were exceedingly active, and on the
slightest touch would wriggle themselves off from the leaf on
which they were feeding, let themselves down by a silken thread,
and remain suspended till the cause of alarm had subsided, when
they would regain their former position. So incredible were their
numbers, that on a single plant of moderate size, and taken at
random, I counted upwards of two hundred and forty ! — and before
the end of the first week in August every leaf, for the space of
more than an acre, was completely reduced to a parched- up
skeleton : not a turnip escaped them, and by the middle of the
month you might have looked in vain for the smallest vestige of a
green leaf on the field of their depredations; and to this day
(Oct. 29th, 1837) it is as bare as if nothing had been sown there.
Similar patches from a like cause may be seen in two or three
other fields in this neighbourhood, where a most excellent crop is
yielded in every other part. On the 9th they began spinning
their cocoons, which are of the most beautiful net-like texture,
some on the dried fibres of the turnip-leaves and others upon the
ground. The perfect insects emerged about the 20th ; but out
of seventeen cocoons five moths only hatched, while the remain-
ing twelve produced the accompanying parasite." This was one
of the IcHNEUMONiD^, and is called by Gravenhorst

26. Campoplex paniscus : j it is black ; the antennae are slender
and shorter than the body; lower part of face silvery; mouth
straw-colour ; body attached by a narrow neck ; the apex of the
female armed with a slender shortish tripartite ovipositor, like a

* Annales de la Soc. Ent. de France, v. 6. p. 229.
t Curtis's Guide Gen., 529, 29.

72 Obs er vat 1071 s on Tmccts afftdhuj the Tiunij) Crojjs.

tail: ^villgs very tiaDsparent and iridescent; the nervures and
stigma yellowish brcnvn ; superior with nine cells and a minute
areolet; thighs bright rust colour; shanks paler, hinder often
whitish, with the apex and a ring near the base pitchy; feet brown
at the apex, hinder fuscous, excepting the base, which is white :
length 2J lines, ovipositor 1 line, expanse from 4J to 5 lines.

This insect is abundant in July and August upon almost every
"umbelliferous plant, in fields and hedges, feeding in the flowers
and searching for caterpillars for the purpose of depositing eggs
in them.

Plusia Gamma. — llie Y-moth.^

K

Although I am not aware of any instance being recorded where
serious mischief has been occasioned by the caterpillars of the
Y-moth in this country, it has caused such ravages abroad that it
is well deserving of our attention, especially when we consider
the multitudes of this species of moth that often appear in our
fields and gardens.

The eggs laid by the female Y-moth are very beautiful, re-
sembling an echinus in shape as well as in their curiously sculp-
tured surface (fig. 38 magnified) : they are generally attached to
the under-side of a leaf in consideraljle clusters.^ and I believe
that the young caterpillars are very unlike the full-fed ones :
after changing their skins several times they become of a green
colour, and are covered w ith very short hairs ; the head is green-
ish brown ; there are six white or bluish lines down the back, and
a yellow streak along each side ; the spiracles or breathing pores
are black ; they have six pectoral or horny feet, only four abdomi-
nal, and two anal, which are all green and fleshy (fig. 39) : these
larvae which form an imperfect loop, in walking I have frequently
found feeding upon turnip-leaves, but they will live upon a
variety of vegetables, upon stinging and dead nettles, and even on
grasses, if pressed by hunger. When they have arrived at their
full growth they spin a woolly white cocoon, either between the
folds of a leaf or against the stalk of a plant, within which they
change to a pitch-coloured chrysalis (fig. 40), distinguished by a
considerable protuberance at the base of the abdom.en, owing to
the long proboscis being bent back at that point. The beautiful
moth produced from these chrysalides belongs to the Order
Lepidoptera, of the Family Noctuid^e^ and is now charac-
terised as the

27. Plusia (Noctua) gamma, Linn. : the tongue is very long
and spiral ; the horns are like fine bristles; the head and thorax

* Curt. Brit. Ent. fol. and pi. 731.
+ Sepp represents them laid singly.

Observations on Insects- affecting the Turnip Croj)s, 73

are of a purplish brown, the latter is crested; the wings when at
rest are closed and a little deflexed ; the superior are somewhat
lance-shaped, shining like satin, of a dull blossom colour with a
slight coppery tinge, and beautifully variegated with brown and
grey, and at the centre is a pale golden letter like the Greek 7 ;
the body and inferior wings are smoky ; the former has a few tufts
of scales on the back near the base, and the latter are often of a
whitish blossom-colour across the centre, leaving a broad brown
margin; the fringe is whitish, with a line of blackish spots: it is
I of an inch long and more than IJ inch in expanse.

From the green colour of the caterpillars they are difficult to
detect : yet they must be very abundant, from the immense quan-
tities of the moths we see flying about fields, hedges, heaths, and
gardens, from the early spring until the end of autumn, but they
are most abundant in July and October. It has been remarked
in France that rainy seasons seem to be more favourable to their
increase than dry years ; and in October, 1816, they rose in swarms
in the northern departments, as persons walked over the fields.'^
In 1735 the caterpillars did incredible mischief to the market-
gardens around Paris, eating up the peas and beans, so that only
the stalks and fragments of the leaves were left, and refusing
nothing but the lentils : their ravages extended to Tours, and in
Auvergne and Burgundy they destroyed the crops of hemp ; and
not only did the gardens suffer, but whole fields of culinary plants
were consumed, and so great were their numbers that at any one
time several scores and more could be seen in the highways going
from one field to another in search of food,f where they would not
refuse either clover or grasses, but they did not touch either
wheat, rye, or barley, although later in the season they attacked
the oats.

These extraordinary swarms of insects, and their irregular re- i>^
turns, may be sometimes owing to the mildness of the foregoing
winter: in the instance just related, there had been no severe
frosts either in the winter or spring, so that the previous autumnal ,
broods of caterpillars lived through the cold season, and it neces-
sarily followed that an immense number of the moths were pro-
duced, and the spring and summer which succeeded proving favour-
able to their increase, they became more abundant than they had
ever been known before. It is only surprising that such events
do not oftener occur, when we consider the rapidity with which
insects increase. Let us, for instance, suppose that no accident in-
terfered with the progress of the different broods of this moth, of
which there are two every year : it is believed that one female moth

* Godart's Lepidop. de France, v. 7, part 2. p. 43.
t Reaumur, Hist, des Ins, v. 2, p. 326.

74 Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops.

Avill lay about 400 eggs, which would be transformed in a few weeks
to 400 moths : if we allow half of these to be females, they would
lay at the same rate 80^000 eggSj which would in the following
autumn (admitting that the first was a vernal moth) become per-
fect insects^ whose eggs, taking again half of them as females,
would amount to the prodigious number of 16,000,000, which
would hatch the following spring, and be ready to devastate the
spot on which they were bred : there must be, consequently, in-
numerable agents in operation to stop their increase, although I
do not happen to have met with the species of ichneumons, «Scc.
which are destined to preserve our green crops from being anni-
hilated by the caterpillars of the Y-moth.

Plusia (jamma is a widely-dispersed insect, being found all
over Europe, and it is said to extend even to the frontiers of
China and Siberia : it likewise inhabits North America. Unlike
most other species of Noctuidse, this moth flies about by day, not
only in the sunshine, but regardless of the weather, it will be
seen on dull and even damp days hovering over flowers, and^ like
a sphinx-moth, thrusting in its long spiral proboscis or tongue to
extract honey from the nectaries ; at other times, fluttering and
running over the flowers, or resting upon them with its wings
closed. There is no moth more shy and difficult to catch by day,
for it will seldom allow any one to come near it, but whether it
detects the approach of man by its eyes, which sparkle like living
rubies, or by its hearing, is not knovv^n : it darts off, however, in
an instant when disturbed, and stops again a few yards off, or
entirely vanishes.

Should the Y-moth caterpillars ever become fearfully abundant
in our turnip-fields, it is not improbable that ducks, poultry, and
fcheep might be very serviceable in diminishing their numbers, if
employed as recommended in the last report upon the black
caterpillar.

Having nov/ given an account of several kinds of insects con-
nected with the turnip crops, T must leave for a future opportu-
nity some others which are equally interesting, and not less de-
structive. The following summary will be useful, by placing
before the reader in a concise form the results of my investiga-
tions : —

History of the Aphides, or Plant-Lice,

Every crop, both in the fields and gardens, is subject to the
attacks of various species.

Two different sorts infest the leaves of the English turnips,
one haunts the leaves of the swedes, and another the Jioiver-stalks .

The green tops are rendered less fit for cattle when infested

Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops. 75

with aphides'^ and the growth of the plants and the roots is re-
tarded.

168 aphides were seen upon one small turnip-leaf in July.

It is by thrusting their beaks, called the rostrum^ into the plants, /,
and imbibing the sap, that they injure our crops.

The females are both oviparous and viviparous : they are
winged and apterous.

In autumn they lay e^^s , w hich hatgh th e fo llowing spring -. /^

The eggs are laid! upon the~l eaves, undertlie buds, and other

secure places.

The females bring forth young, without sexual intercourse, for
many generations. ^

Their increase is prodigious : it is calculated that one female
might be the progenitor of upwards of 5900 millions of de-
scendants in one year. ^

The eggs hatch about the period ^f north and north-east
winds, in M arch and A pril.

Their increase is accelerated by damp sidtry weather as the
season advances, i-^

Electricity probably often causes their simultaneous appearance.

The aphides can wcdk about as soon as they are born^ and are
able to do so until their lives are terminated.

Abundant in August, September, and October, and even at the
end of November, secreted beneath the diseased leaves. ^

It is doubtful if these species deposit the saccharine matter
called honey-deiv.

Cutting off the infested leaves and destroying them on the
spot, or carrying them away in sacks to be burnt, is the best
remedy.
^ To bacco and Um e_ water will kill the aphides^. Lime-dust, if

strewed in cTry weather, is an effective cure^ . "^

i^ They often d p not suffer from heavy rains.

Insectivorous birds, and various i7isects, our best friends in
checking their increase.
y_. The lady-birds and their larvw are particularly useful in de-
stroying the aphides.

Immense swarms of the lady-birds sometimes appear on our
shores.

A little fly called Aphidius lays its eggs in the aphides, and
when they hatch the maggot destroys the aphis.

These again become the victims of other small flies, called
Ceraphron Carpenteri, Cyrtogaster vulgaris, and Colax aphidii.

Some of the Cynipsidce, or gcdl-flies, are also parasites, which
live in the aphides as maggots.

Four other wasp-like flies collect the aphides as food for their
young.

76 Observations on Insecls (tffedlnr) the Turnip Crops.

The ApJiLS-llon, or larva of the Golden-eye fly, destroys the
aphides; and \\\e maggots of some two-winged flies called Syrphi
arc still more serviceable in their destruction.

These are^ however^ in their turn infested with a parasite called
Cerajjhron syrjjhi.

Severe frosts destroy the aphides^ but they are able to propa-
gate in mild winters.

When immersed in ivatcr for sixteen hours^ it has not killed
them.

An atmosphere strongly im2:>regnated with camphor did not
affect them in twenty-four hours.

The Turnip- LEAF miners may generate diseases in cattle,
when they greatly abound.

One called Drosophila flava causes large blisters on the upper
sides of the leaves, which contain the maggots.

The other, named Fhytomyza nigrico7mis, is the parent of a
maggot which eats galleries in the under-sides of the leaves.

The Turnip diamond-back moth : the larvae feed upon the
turnip-leaves, and sometimes nothing but the fibres are left.

l^lie chrysalis is inclosed in a net-work cocoon, attached to the
dried fibres, or formed upon the ground.

It is found all over Europe from Midsummer to November,
and does great mischief in the kitchen-gardens in the Mauritius.

Upwards of 240 of the caterpillars have been found upon one
plant.

A parasitic Ichneumon lays its eggs in the caterpillars.

The Y-MOTH lays its eggs on the under-side of turnip-leaves
and other plants.

The green caterpillar feeds upon the turnip-leaves and a variety
of plants.

The chrysalis is inclosed in a white web, often spun in the
folds of the leaves.

The 7?ioths are abundant from April till October, especially in
the latter month and in July.

Rainy seasons seem to be congenial to their increase.

In October, 1816, the moths swarmed in the north of
France.

In 1735, the caterpillars ate up all the vegetables around
Paris, excepting lentils.

Their ravages extended to the centre and south of France,
where they consumed the hemjj-crops, and did not refuse grasses
and clover.

They spared the corn-crops, but attacked the oats later in the
season.

The previous ivinier and spring had been very mild.

One female Y-mothin the spring might become the progenitor

Observations on Insects affecting the Turnip Crops. 77

of 16,000,000 of caterpillars, in the space of twelve months, viz.
from the spring of one year to the following spring.

It is dispersed over all Europe, to the confines of Siberia and
China, and is also an inhabitant of North America.

It flies by day as well as at night.

Ducks, poultry, and sheep recommended to destroy the cater-
pillars.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Fig. 1*. Aphis Rapee, male, a The natural dimensions.

Fig. 2*. , female, h The natural size.

Fig. 3*. , a young one just excluded.

Fig. 4*. Aphis dubia. c The natural size.

Fig. 5*. Aphis Brassicss, male, d The natural dimensions.

Fig. 6*. , female, e The natural size.

Fig. 7*. Aphis Floris-Rapse, male. /The natural dimensions.

Fig. 8*. ■ , female, g The natural size.

Fig. 9*. Front view of head of an Aphis magnified.

h The rostrum or beak.

i The compound eyes.

k The three ocelli or simple eyes.
Fig. 10*. The head in profile of an Aphis magnified, showing the
rostrum and antennae.

Fig. II*. One of the antennae or horns greatly magnified.
Fig. 12*. One of the six legs magnified.

/ The thigh or femur.

m The shank or tibia.

n The foot or tarsus.

The claws and pulvilli or suckers.
Fig. 13. The larva of a Coccinella or lady-bird.

* The same magnified. .
Fig. 14. The pupa or chrysalis of ditto.
Fig. 15. The twin-spotted lady-bird.
Fig. 16. The seven-spotted ditto.

Fig. 17*. The indurated skin of a female Aphis, from vdiich a para-
sitic fly has been hatched.

p The natural size.
Fig. 18*. Aphidius Rapse, the parasitic fly alluded to,

q The natural size.
Fig. 19. The larva of the golden-eye, called the Aphis-lion.

* The same magnified, with the lichen removed.
Fig. 20.- The cocoon formed by the larva.

Fig. 21. The golden-eye, Chrysopa perla, a female, at rest.

Fig. 22. The eggs of ditto, copied from Reaumur,

Fig. 23. The maggot or larva of Syrphus pijra-^tri, sucking an Aphis.

Fig. 24. The pupa of ditto.

Fig. 25. Syrplius pyrasiii, male.

78 Ohfiervatioiis on Insects affecthg the Turnip Crops.

Fig. 26. A turnip-leaf, upper-side.

Fig. 27. The maggot of Drosophila flava, feeding under the cuticle.

Fig. 28. The pupa of ditto.

Fig. 29*. The same greatly magnified.

Fig. 30*. Drosophila flava represented flying.

r The natural dimensions.
Fig. 31. The gallery formed on the iinder-side of a turnip-leaf by the
maggot of Phytomyza nigricornis.

Fig. 32. The pupa of ditto secured under the cuticle.
Fig. 33*. Phytomyza nigricornis represented flying.

s The natural dimensions.
Fig. 34. The caterpillar of the Turnip diamond-back moth.
Fig. 35. The pupa of the same inclosed in the cocoon.
Fig. 36. The moth from the same represented at rest.
Fig. 31*. The same flying and magnified.
Fig. 38*. The egg of the Y-moth.'

t The natural size.
Fig. 39. The full-grown caterpillar walking.
Fig. 40. The chrysalis in its web.
Fig. 41. The Y-moth flying.

Obs. All the figures are drawn from nature, excepting 22, 23, and
34, and the numbers with a * attached indicate that the objects referred
to are represented much larger than life.

London, February, 1842.

[Tlie copyriglit of this paper is reserved by the writer.]

VII T. — On the Comparative Value of different Kinds of Fodder.
By the Rev. W. Riiam.

As the following table of the comparative value of different kinds
of fodder in feeding- cattle may not be a:enerally known, I have
translated it from the French. It has been published by M.
Antoine, at Nancy, and is the result of experiments made by the
principal agriculturists of the Continent, Thaer, Gemerhausen,
Petro, Rieder, Weber, Krantz, Andre, Block, De Dombasle,
Boussingault, Meyer, Plotow, Pohl, Smee, Crud, Schwertz, Pabst.
It is unnecessary to give the figures which each of these experi-
mentalists have set down, but the mean of their experiments
being taken, there is more chance of the result being near the
truth. Allowance must be made for the different qualities of the
same food on different soils and different seasons. In very dry
summers the same weight of any green food will be much more
nourishing than in a dripping season. So likewise any fodder

33

3& *

:/^...

D

/. ,./,/zc- m..^./ -/A',

Comparative Value of different Kinds of Fodder. 79

raised on a rich dry soil will be more nourishing than on a poor
wet one. The standard of comparison is the best upland meadow-
, hay, cut as the flower expands^ and properly made and stacked,
without much heating- ; in short, hay of the best quality. With
respect to hay, such is the difference in value, that if 100 lbs. of
the best is used, it will require 120 lbs. of a second quality to
keep the same stock as well, 140 lbs. of the tHrd, and so on, till
very coarse and hard hay, not well made, will only be of half the
value, and not so fit for cows or store catde, even when given in
double the quantity. While good hay alone will fatten cattle, in-
ferior hay will not do so without other food.

I shall give the table as it stands, and add the notes which
accompany it : —

lbs.
Good hay . . . . - , . . 100 is equal in nourishment to

Lattermath hay 102

Clover, hay-made ..... 90 when the blossom is com-
pletely developed.

Ditto 88 before the blossom expands.

Clover, second crop .... 98

Lucerne hay 98

Sainfoin hay 89

Tare hay 91

Spergula arvensis, dried ... 90 '
Clover hay, after the seed . . . 146

Green clover 410

Vetches or tares, green . . . 457

Green Indian corn 275

Green spergula 425

Stems and leaves of Jerusalem arti-
choke 325

Cow-cabbage leaves . . , . 541

Beet-root leaves 600

Potatoe halm 300

Shelter wheat-straw .... 374

Rye straw 442

Oat straw 195

Peas halm . 1 53

Vetch halm 159

Bean halm 140

Buckwheat straw 195

Dried stalks of Jerusalem as ticliohes 170
Dried stalks of Indian corn , . 400

Millet straw 250

Raw potatoes 201

Boiled ditto 175

White Silesian beet .... 220

Mangold- wurzel 339

Turnips 504

80 Comparative Value of different Kinds of Fodder.

lbs.

Carrots 276

Cohlkalis 287

Swedish turnips 308

Ditto, with the leaves on , . . 350

Grain — Rye ■■ 54

Wheat . . , . . 45

Barlev 54

Oats ' 59

Vetches 50

Peas 45

Beans 45

Buckwheat .... 64

Indian corn .... 57

French heans, dried , . 32

Chestnuts 47

Acorns 68

Horse-chestnuts . . . 50

Sun -flower seed ... 62

Linseed cake .... 69

Wheat bran .... 105

Rye bran 109

W^heat, peas, and oat chaff . . 167

Rye and barley chaff . . . . 179

Dried lime-tree leaves , . . . 73

oak leaves 83

Canada poplar leaves . . 67

Observations.

Lattermatli hay is g-ood for cows, not for horses. The second
cut is generally considered as inferior in nourishment to the first.
New hay is not wholesome. At Paris, when a load of 1000
kilos is bargained for, the seller must deliver — if between hay-
making and October 1, 1300 kilos— from October 1 to April 1,
1 100 kilos — and after April, only 1000. This is fair, and allows
for loss of weight in drying. In London, a load of new hay is
20 cwt. ; of old hay, only 18 cwt. Spurney (Spergula arvensis) is
excellent food for cows ; but, except on poor moist sands, the
crop is so light as not to pay for cultivation. It grows rapid) v,
and makes a good intermediate crop between barley-harvest and
winter.

The dried halm of the Trifolium incarnatum, after the seed is
ripe, is little better than straw. Clover, lucerne, and sainfoin are
generally supposed to lose three-fourths of their weight in drying ;
but in general they lose more, especially in moist climates, where
the sap is more diluted. When touched by the frost, they become
very unwholesome,, and should never be given to cattle except
quite dry.

Comparative Value of different Kinds of Fodder. 81

All beasts are fond of the green stems of the Indian corn or
maize; but it has not yet been much cultivated in Britain. If
sown in May, so as to be free from frost, after the seeds have
been well soaked in water, the crop will come up well, and be
ready to cut green in September and October, without ever pro-
ducing any seed ; but v/ithin the stalk will be found the embryo of
the seed ear, which is extremely svv^eet and pleasant to the taste.
It is very good boiled as greens. Green spurrey gives excellent
milk and butter when the cows are fed on it. There is a variety
which is much larger than the common field-spurrey, and which
is worth attention.

The stems of Jerusalem artichokes when young may be good
fodder, but they soon get hard and woody. The leaves of the
cow-cabbage, when given quite fresh, and none of them v/ithered
or decayed, are excellent for cows, and give no taste to the butter.
Straw is, on the whole, but poor food, and unless cattle have
something better with it, they will not keep in any condition ;
when given with turnips or other roots, straw corrects their watery
nature, and is very useful ; cut into chaff it is very good for sheep
when fed on turnips and oil-cake, and when newly thrashed is as
good nearly as hay. By a j udicious mixture of different kinds of
food, a more economical mode of feeding may be substituted for
a more expensive one, and the same result obtained. The value
of straw depends much on the soil : a very clean crop will not
give so nourishing straw as one containing many succulent weeds.
Peas and vetch halm are superior to straw, especially when cut
into chaff: it is by some thought equal to hay. The same may
be said of bean halm not left too long in the field, and cut before
it is completely dry. Buckwheat halm is of little value : it is
thought unwholesome if given to sheep.

The dried stems of the Jerusalem artichoke must be cut into
chaff, and then boiled or macerated in water, otherwise the cattle
cannot chew them. I'he same may be said of the stems of millet,
sorgho, and maize. Raw potatoes increase the milk of cows, but
they must be given \^ith caution, and only a few at first, till the
stomach is accustomed to them; boiled, they fatten every kind of
stock ; mixed with cut chaff, they are excellent for horses : 14 lbs.
of boiled potatoes will allow a diminution of 8 lbs. of hay; hence
their value in this w^ay is easily calculated. When hay is 4.1. 4-y.
a load, it is just \d. per lb. ; the 14 lbs. of boiled potatoes are
therefore worth 4d. And 56 lbs. being reduced by bailing to
42 lbs., the potatoes are equal in value to '2y. per cwt,, which is
405. per ton. From this must be deducted the expense of
boiling; where fuel is cheap, this will be compensated by the dung,
which would have been lost had the potatoes been sold. If
14 lbs. of boiled potatoes are equal to 16 lbs, raw, raw potatoes

VOL. III. G

82 Comparative Value of different Kinds of Fodder.

are one-half the value of hay; and if hay is Jc/. per lb., raw pota-
toes are worth \d. per lb., \s. ''2d. the half cwt., and conse-
quently more than when boiled.

Every kind of cattle eat turnips except horses. Turnips will
feed store pigs, but they will not fatten on them. Carrots and
parsneps are excellent for horses, and, when boiled, will fatten
hogs. Ruta-baga is liked by horses : it makes their coats fine,
but must not be given in too great quantity, or it will gripe them.

In France, the flour of buckwheat, seasoned with salt and
mixed with water, is used to fatten oxen, sheep, and swine.

Hogs fattened with chestnuts have fine-flavoured flesh.

If the horse-chestnuts are boiled, the bitter part is boiled out,
and cattle will eat them readily : mixed v.itli other food, they
soon become accustomed to them.

Oil-cake varies in nutriment, as in price : if linseed- cake is
17*50, rape-cake will be 16*60, cameline and hemp-seed cake 9,
poppy-cake 8.

Bran is good for horses mixed with oats, and for milch cows
excellent. If it can be had good at \d. per lb., it is worth as
much as the best hay.

The value of dried leaves is taken chiefly from their analysis
by Sprengel ', but they must be gathered when green, and dried
like hay.

On the Feeding of AnimaU.

A certain quantity of food is required to keep an animal alive
and in health : this is called his necessary ration of food : if he has
more, he will gain flesh, or give milk or wool.

An ox requires 2 per cent, of his live weight in hay per day; if
he works, he requires 2^ per cent. : a milch cow, 3 per cent. : a
fatting ox, 5 per cent, at first; 4 J per cent, when half fat ; and only
4 per cent, when fat ; or 41 on the average. Sheep grown up
take 3^ per cent, of their weight in hay per day, to keep in store
condition.

Growing animals require more food, and should never be
stinted.

Winkfeld, March, 1842.

( 83 )

IX. — On Cottage Economy and Cookery. Compiled bj French
Burke, Esq., from Essajs submitted to the Rojal English

Agricultural Society.

On directing their attention to improvement in the condition of
our peasantry, it occurred to many Members of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England, that few objects would tend more to
add to the comforts of the labouring population than to furnish
them with plain instructions for some better modes of preparing
their food, without any increase of expense. To use without
waste the food which Providence supplies for the w^ants of man
is indeed of the greatest importance to those who have but little to
spend ; and nothing so completely disarms the stings of poverty
as the means of rendering a scanty pittance capable of producing
a comfortable meal. If, therefore, by teaching them a little of
simple cookery, it can be occasionally so changed as to make it
somewhat more savoury at the same cost, there can be little doubt
that it would materially add to their comforts, and thus attach
them still more to their homes. For although they consume far
more animal food than the foreign peasantry of Europe, they yet
do not fare so well ; and that solely by their different mode of
preparing their victuals.

The Society therefore offered a premium, in the course of last
year, " for the best directions to enable labourers to prepare
wholesome, nutritive, and palatable food, in the most economical
and easy manner:" not with any intention to lessen its quantity,
but to point out some simple means of rendering it occasionally
more pleasant to the palate, and withal more digestible and
healthful. Numerous essays were accordingly presented to the
Council, and, after careful examination, that written by a female —
who describes herself '' as having, during a long life, passed it in
a village some miles distant from London, where she has brought
up a large family, with due attention to economy, and with con-
stant opportunities of witnessing the modes of life of her poorer
neighbours" — was deemed entitled to the prize. Some of the
other essays, however, containing hints which were thought worthy
of attention, portions of them have been made use of in the fol-
lowing account, with the consent of the authors. It will be grati-
fying to find that these and similar instructions have the effect
intended ; but their success must depend in a great measure
on the habits of the poor themselves : contentment will give a
flavour to the poorest fare, and plenty goes hand-in-hand with
frugality.

It should be observed that the prices herein stated are those of
the metropolis. Large deductions must, therefore, in some in-
stances be made from them^ so as to meet those current in markets

g2

84 On Cottage Economy and Cookery.

far distant from London, and In remote parts of the comitry; but
this can occasion no real inconvenience, as every one can reduce
the cost of any article to the sum usually paid for it where he
resides.

There can be little doubt that bacon, household-bread, and
cheese, washed down by a draught of strong beer, is a v/holesomc
and substantial meal for a working man ; and, if he can but afford
it, he will seldom find a better. Fresh animal food is, however,
more nutritious ; as bacon, although it goes farthest in family use,
and is therefore more commonly employed by the poor, yet occa-
sions much greater perspirations after hard labour, and thus not
only creates more exhaustion, but a little change, where it can be
had, is both pleasant as well as wholesome. When a cottager
has a garden and fattens a pig, he seldom goes to the l)utcher
until the bacon is all consumed ; but he would do better by occa-
sionally buying a pound or two of meat to eke out the bacon until
he can kill another hog.

With regard to strong beer, we are far from decrying its use
in moderation ; but, independently of its cost, although its excite-
ment gives momentary strength, yet we know, from those who have
tried it, that continual labour will be better performed by a man
who during the day drinks only water mixed with some powdered
ginger, and leaves the beer to enjoyment with his wife at night;
for although the malt liquor exhilarates the spirits, and enables a
man to perform more work for an hour, yet this stimulus leaves
him in a more exhausted state than before he drank it. The
powder is extremely cheap : it warms the stomach, and a very
small quantity, which can be mixed in a moment, with a pint of
water, will be found a more invigorating draught in warm weather
than the same quantity of common harvest-beer.

It is a great error to suppose that butter and cheese are less
expensive than meat, if it be judiciously purchased and economi-
cally prepared ; but the poor are, in marketing, oftentimes more
anxious to obtain a portion of the best joints than to content them-
selves with those of inferior price, although these generally con-
tain as much, and sometimes more, real nourishment. The
trimmings of the joints and the coarse parts, as well as the bones,
when flavoured with various sorts of vegetables, and thickened
with either rice, barley, or oatmeal, can be converted into several
savoury dishes at a very trifling cost. Of the various kinds of
meat, beef and mutton are decidedly to be preferred; and, in
regard to cookery, stews of different sorts are not only the most
economical, but have the advantage of procuring for the family a
warm supper of some variety after the toil of the day is over.
Of these, perhaps, the cheapest may ]je made from a shin of beef,
which usually weighs from 16 to 20 lbs. ; and, if the whole be

On Cottage Economy and Cookery. 85

purchased, may commonly be got for 2s. or 2s. &d. ; or, if only a
portion be taken, at 2^jl. to 3f/. the pound. The better way is,
therefore, for two or three families to join; but as that can only
rarely be done, then buy only so much as will serve a couple of
days for a man, his wife, and two children under ten years of
age (^for tchich number in family these instructions are in-
tended), and dress it as follows : —

Cut off the meat into slices, break the bone into small pieces,
and put the whole into a saucepan, covered with a quart of water,
until it boils. Then skim off the grease (but do not throw it
away, as it will afterwards serve for frying), and add 2 quarts of
water, 2 large onions, carrots, and turnips, cut into small squares,
and a fev/ grains of whole pepper, with sufficient salt for season
ing. Put the saucepan then on one side of the fire, to simmer
gently until the meat is tender ; which, although it will take from
lour to five hours, yet does not require any attendance. The
half of it may be left to be warmed up the following day; and the
bones should be again stewed down in a small quantity of water,
to add to the soup. If this be done in that common kitchen
utensil the iron digester (which no cottager should be without),
a great deal of fatty substance will be extracted even from these
bare bones, and made, with a little more vegetables, into tolerably
good broth. The whole cost for the two days, even supposing
the vegetables to be purchased, will be —

Meat, say 4 lbs., at 2i<i. per lb. . . 10
Vegetables, pepper, and salt .... 4

1 2

Indeed, if the cottager has a garden, and if the meat can be got,
as frequently is the case, at a less price, these substantial meals
may each be had for 3d. or 4c/. ; and it may be observed, that in
all those large towns where there are regular butchers, the trim-
mings of mutton — that is to say, the small bones and pieces cut
from the neck, breast, loin, and different joints — can generally be
had at a very cheap rate : nor ought they to be despised, for the
meat is of the best, and a stev/ made from such trimmings is just
as good as if it were cut from the prime parts of the carcass.

A bullock's heart weighs from 5 to 7 lbs. The price in
London is never more than l^". 6:/., and it may frequently be got
for a shilling; but, say that it weighs 6 lbs., and costs \s. 3d.
The meat is very solid, and the flavour so much relished, that
many persons in good circumstances prefer it to calves' heart,
which is often served at gentlemen's tables. Nor does it require
much knowledge of cookery in the dressing, which is done as
follows : — Wash it well, and dry it thoroughly ; then prepare the

86 On Cottage Economy and Cookery.

seasoning, made with crumbs of bread, thyme and parsley, or any
sweet herbs, and an onion chopped fine, with a little suet, and
some pepper and salt — all mixed together and put into the
heart ; the opening of which is to be sewn up, so as to prevent
the stuffing from getting out. Peel a good quantity of potatoes
and onions, which place in a large deep dish, with the heart over
them upon a trivet, and send it to the baker's. A bit of lard
should also be sent with it, with which it should be occasionally
rubbed, in order to prevent the sldn from becoming too hard.
Or, if you have a Dutch-oven and a good fire, it may be roasted,
and the charge of baking saved. The cost will be as follows : —

s. d.
Heart .... 1 3

Herbs, suet and lard . 3

Potatoes . . . OH

Baking . . . U

1 9
Which is much more than can be afforded for one day's con-
sumption ; but, as there are no bones, and the meat, as ah'eady
said, is very solid, it will last full three days, or even four, if used
with economy. On the first it will, of course, be eaten without
bread ; and on the following days a portion may be either warmed
up in a saucepan with a little water and a spoonful of vinegar, or
cut into slices and fried with onions.

The midcalf is also a solid and very nutritious part, wdiicli
may be got for a mere trifle, and Vvill last for two or three days
if dressed in the following manner : — Put a layer of potatoes
which have been partially boiled, at the bottom of a deep earthen
jar ; cut a portion into slices with a little bacon, placing them in
regular order upon the potatoes, together with sliced onions and
pot-herbs; then another layer of potatoes and midcalf alternately,
until the whole is cut up : fill the jar (which should be very deep)
with potatoes nearly to the top, and fill it quite up with water ;
cover it close up, and either stew it gently by the fire, or put it
into the oven for some hours, until the meat is tender.

A pound of any fat meat, cut into square pieces, without bacon,
and dressed in the same manner, will also make an excellent
stew in much less time — say a couple of hours — and equally
without attendance.

There is, however, no part of the bullock which produces more
nutritive food than the head ; for the one-half, or what is usually
called the " ox cheek,'' will make delicious stews, with soup for
at least three or four days' consumption. The price of this in
the winter season is, however, generally 2s., which is a startling
sum for a labourer, but in summer it can always be procured for

Oil Cottage Economy and Cookery. 87

\s., and should be dressed thus : — Clean it well„ and let it lie in
water until the next morning, when it must be wiped dry, and
placed over the fire in a large saucepan, only just covering it with
water until it boils ; then leave it to cool, and skim off the fat
(keeping it for further use). When cold, fill the saucepan with
water ; add a couple of whole onions, with three or four good-
sized carrots and turnips, cut into small pieces, and a bundle of
sweet herbs tied together, seasoning it with pepper, salt, and a
little vinegar. Leave it to stew, without allowing it to boil, until
the liquor is reduced to one -half, and the meat becomes tender,
and the soup tastes strong and palatable ; a portion of which will
be quite sufficient for the children, with a piece of bread, without
any of the meat. The brains should, however, be taken out, and
mixed up in the same manner as stuffing for the heart, and either
fried separately, or made into balls and put into the stew.

The next day, as much of the head as may be \vanted for the
family should be sliced off and warmed up along with the remain-
ing soup. The day following that, take off all the meat that
remains, break up the bones into small pieces, and let them stew
by the fireside for some hours, in three or four quarts of water ;
then take out the bones and put in the meat, thickening the
liquor either with vegetables, as before, or with peas, rice, barley,
or oatmeal. The soup will cut like jelly when cold, and im-
proves upon being warmed up. Neither does it cost much more
than the price of the head ; and we know that, if that be of large
size, it would in winter last nearly a week with good manage-
ment. This, however, cannot be expected in warm weather, and
it takes a great deal of cooking, which at that season is inconve-
nient. In the summer, however, when the labourer's wife is not
uncommonly employed in the field, and fire cannot be kept up
for cookery, it is a good plan to purchase a few pounds of the
flank of beef, which can always be got for 4c?. or hd. the pound.
It contains no bone ; and if well salted, boiled, then pressed under
weights until flat, and afterwards rolled up and tied together, it
makes a good and cheap relish when cut into thin slices and
eaten cold between slices of bread, in the manner of a sandwich.

A poor man can seldom afford to purchase even the coarsest
joint of mutton ; but, if he lives near a town, he can often get
the sheep's head and pluck for less than Is. 6d., indeed very
frequently for a shilling, and with these his wife can make up
four hot meals, in the following manner : —

The whole should be well cleaned and covered with salt and
water, which should be occasionally changed until they are
wanted. On the first day, take the heart, milt, and sweetbread,
sliced and seasoned with pepper and salt, and make them into a
pudding covered with a paste made of flour mixed with a little

88 On Cottage Economy and Cookery.

finely chopped suet. It will take nearly two hours boiling; and,
if the paste be thick, will not require bread. On the second, cut
the liver and lights into slices, and fry them with half a pound of
bacon ; at the same lime boihng half a stone of potatoes, and only
using the one-half of the whole quantity. On the next day, dress
the remainder in the same manner, only slicing the potatoes also
into the pan along Avith an onion, and fry them with lard or
dripping. On the fourth, stevv" the head in a couple of quarts of
water ; and when nearly done, add half a pound of rice with an
onion and seasoning, and let it simmer gently until the rice ab-
sorbs the whole of the broth.

These substantial and truly savoury meals may be eaten with
potatoes only, as bread is not necessary ; and the cost of the
whole will be as follows : —

Head and pluck, say
^ lb. of bacon

s.

. 1

.

3
3i

Suet and dripping
1 lb. of flour

.
.

2i
2

t} lb. of rice

.

li

1 stone of potatoes
Spice and onions

.
.

4

2 6

or 7jf/. for each, if the potatoes be purchased by the bushel in
the country. A few vegetables, such as carrots, turnips, and
celery, cut small, may be previously boiled in the iron pot, and
when done added to the stew.

On the subject of stewing meat the following hint may be
advantageously adopted by many cooks who consider themselves
mistresses of their art ; it is this : — Take a piece of boiling beef
with some fat to it, and a little seasoning; but without water,
gravy, or liquid of any sort. Put it into an earthen jug closely
covered, and place that within a large iron or tin pot nearly filled
with cold water, then lay it so near the fire as to keep up a gentle
simmer, without letting it boil. It will require several hours,
according to the weight of the meat, which should be stewed
until quite tender ; it loses nothing, and will yield a large cpantity
of the richest gravy. It is decidedly the best mode of dressing
that universal French dish — " bwuf bouilli'' — and the cottager's
wife can bring it to her table in as great perfection as any cook
to a nobleman : adding to it, if she pleases, some carrots and
other vegetables, to form a family dish.

Of plain roasting and boiling nothing need be said, as every
married woman must be supposed to understand those common
m^odes of cookery ; but there is, perhaps, no dish which in the

On Cottage Economy and Cookery. 89

summer appears more frequently upon tbe poor man's table than
baco7i and cabbage ; which, although boiled in the same pot, are
put in separately. But it will be found a great improvement if,
instead of that, a hole be cut in the heart of the cabbage, and a
quarter or half a pound of fat bacon is thrust into it as a plug.
The head of the cabbage should then be tied over, so as to confine
the leaves, and the cabbage boiled in a napkin, to prevent all
escape of fat, which will thus be imparted to the vegetable, and
render it so much more mellow and savoury, that any housewife
who tries it will never dress it in any other way. Bacon is also
frequently fried with potatoes or chopped cabbage, and forms a
savoury meal for the family supper ; but half the quantity of
bacon, if stewed for a couple of hours with different kinds of
vegetables in a moderate quantity of vrater thickened with a handful
of oatmeal, would be equally palatable, and go much farther.

In the summer also, er/gs, being cheap, are much used by the
peasantry, and almost in every instanceyr/ec/, either alone or with
bacon. An agreeable change may, however, be made by frying
three or four sliced onions until they are well browned ; and while
the onions are frying, having your eggs broken into a basin, and
beaten with a fork for a couple of minutes. Season with pepper
and salt ; and then pour them over the onions, taking care to have
sufficient butter or dripping in the pan to prevent them from ad-
hering to the bottom ; and in this manner they will form a very
good omelet, which will be done in the course of three or
four minutes. Or^ if frying be inconvenient, the Irish mode of
" buttered eggs " may be employed, by merely putting the eggs
(after their being beaten up in the foregoing manner) into an
earthen pipkin, greased inside, and stirring them together for
about the same time.

That very nice dish known as " toad-in-a-hole,^^ although some-
what expensive, yet serves well for a Sunday's dinner; as, being
sent to the baker, it will not prevent the wife from going to
church. It is made as follows : — Make a batter with a pound of
flour, a couple of eggs, and a pint of skim-milk, and put into the
centre of it a pound or a pound and a half of any kind of meat.
If fat, the batter may be made without milk, and even without an
egg, though it will be better if those ingredients be added. The
costs of the best mode will be —

1 lb. of flour

.

rf.

2

1 pint of rnilk

.

01

2 eggs

.

1

Meat, say .

.

7

Baking

.

n

1 2

90 On Cottage Economy and Cookery.

Fresh fish, except upon our coasts, or when a glut of mackerel,
pilchards, or herrings is brought to market, is out of the reach
of the poor ; but the latter, when salted, make a good relish to
potatoes either fried or boiled. When fresh, thej may, however,
be kept sweet for a long time by cutting off the head, fins, and
tail, and laying them in the bottom of a jar, sprinkled with pepper
and salt, with alternate layers of sliced onions, until the jar is
full : then pour in vinegar and send it to be baked ; or they may
be eaten cold, as a relish, with potatoes.

The despised little sprat is seldom salted ; but if eaten fresh it
is very nutritious, and so cheap that on our coasts it is sold to the
farmers for manure at the rate of 6f/. to 7d. the bushel. Now if
a quantity of these are deprived merely of their heads and tails,
without being gutted, then fried with cold sliced potatoes, they
make a capital dish; or, when browned, if the contents of the
pan be mixed, quite hot, with a quantity of boiled rice, it will
l3e found to form a more savoury and substantial meal than when
eaten with bread.

Fish, however, although yielding a very comfortable abundance
to a great mass of the labouring population, yet is not nearly so
nutritious as meat. It should not, therefore, be the constant diet
of a working man ; and when he can change it, during a couple
of days in the week, for beef or bacon, he should always do so.

Cheap soups add greatly to the comfort of a family; and it
would be well if the housewife would pay attention to the few
simple and economical modes of preparing them and vegetables,
as stated here and in other tracts on the same subject : to which
may be added this observation ; that, in whatever way they are
made, the flavour will always be greatly improved if the onions
(which should always form a portion of the contents) are sliced
and fried in a little fat of any kind before being put into the soup.
A common mistake in making soup, as well as in boiling meat,
is to boil it much too fast, and for too short a time. The pot,
in fact (and an earthen pot is both the cleanest and the best)
ought to be almost always kept merely simmering by the fire ;
and the smallest fire is large enough, if the soup be allowed to
remain near it long enough.

The liquor in which any meat is boiled should always be saved
for the making of soup, and the bones even of fish should also be
preserved ; for, although quite bare of meat, yet if stewed down
for several hours, they will yield a species of broth, which along
with peas or oatmeal will make good soup. A lot of bones may
always be got from the butcher for 2d., and they are never scraped
so clean as not to have some scraps of meat adhering to them.
Put them into an iron pot — a digester, if you have one — large
enough to hold a gallon; and in winter, when the cottage is

On Cottage Economy and Cookery. 91

never without a fire, fill the pot with water^ letting it boil for
three or four hours, until it tastes something like strong broth,
and is reduced to less than a couple of quarts ; then, having taken
out the bones, put into the liquor a quantity of any vege-
tables you may have at hand — cut small, and not forgetting the
fried onion — and let them stew until they are tender ; when nearly
done, throw in a few crusts of bread, and it will be found a
capital dish of soup. This done, the bones are to be again boiled
in the same manner, but for a longer time, and the broth may be
made the next day into a stew with rice. Nor is this all, for the
bones, if again boiled for a still longer time, will once more yield
a nourishing broth, which may be made into pea-soup ; and
when thus done with, may either be sold to the crushers, or
pounded by yourself and used as manure for your garden.

It is not, however, always that broth can be had ; but, even in
that case, it must not be supposed that the soup cannot be made
without either broth or meat ; for it has been tried according to
the following receipt for pea-soup, both by the lady who sent it
to the Society, as well as by the compiler of these essays, and has,
in both instances, been found excellent: — To three quarts of
boiling water add a pint of peas, and let them boil till tender,
then mash them together so as to form a paste, and put them back
into the water along with a quantity of carrots, turnips, celery if
you have any, all cut into dice, with some sliced onions, and fry
the whole in the dripping-pan, keeping them well floured while
frying, to prevent their burning. After this, let the soup simmer
gently for a couple of hours ; and if too thin, thicken it with a
handful of oatmeal ; season it with pepper and salt and a little
dried mint, and it will serve for a family of four during two days.
Split-peas are commonly used, yet whole-peas are not only quite
as good, but cheaper. The cost will be at the most 3c?. ; or, if
oatmeal be used, a pint will be sufficient, the usual price being
only 2d. ; but pea-soup is the preferable of the two. The peas
should, however, be always left to soak during the night, and the
next day made into soup with soft water ; for if hard water be used,
the peas will not become tender or mix into that smooth consistence
which is necessary to make it good. If soft water cannot be had,
a small piece of soda put into the water will, however, have the
effect.

Vegetable soKp may also be made thus : — Take the heart of a
cabbage, or some cabbage-sprouts, or spinach, two or three
turnips and carrots cut small, and a little bruised celery-seed, if
you cannot get it in the root, and boil them in about three pints
or two quarts of water for an hour. When done enough, slice
three good-sized onions and fry them till well browned ; put them

92 On Cottage Economy and Cookery.

into the soup with some crusts of bread, and let the whole boil
together for a quarter of an hour.

It will thus be seen that these soups can be made for very little
money, if the labourer has a garden; and, indeed, the late Dr.
Kitchener has published a receipt for making a gallon of barley-
hroth for a groat. Having tried it, we here give a copy of it ;
but we should say, that half the quantity of water is quite sufficient
for the materials, and that it requires four or five hours to make it
well : — '^ Put 4 ounces of Scotch barley (previously washed in cold
vv'atcr) and 4 ounces of sliced onions into 5 quarts of water ; gently
boil for an hour, and pour it into a pan ; then put into the sauce-
pan 1 or 2 ounces of clean beef or mutton suet, or 2 or 3 ounces
of fat bacon minced. When melted, stir into it 4 ounces of oat-
meal ; rub these together till you make a paste, and, if this be
properly managed, the whole of the fat will combine with the
barley-broth, to which it must be then added by degrees, about a
spoonful at a time, stirring it well together till it boils. Season it
at pleasure, and let it simmer for a quarter of an hour. The
flavour may be varied by doubling the quantity of onions and
frying them, or by using a clove of garlick or an eschalot ; and it
may be thickened with ground rice or peas, instead of oatmeal."

Rice is very little used by the poor of this country, or even by
the middle classes of society, and it is inconceivable how much
they would gain in comfort b}- its more general employment, for
it contains a great deal of nourishment, and is perhaps the cheapest
food that can be put upon the table. It forms the only sub-
sistence of millions of our fellow-creatures in the Indies, who
never taste anything more substantial, and yet live long and
healthfully, and we cannot too strongly recommend it to the cot-
tager. There is, however, a very foolish and unfounded preju-
dice entertained against it by the lower classes, among whom it
is very generally thought to be ''bad for the eyes," though those
who use it largely, both abroad and in this country, never expe-
rience any such ill effects from it.

There are two qualities of rice, the Carolina, and the East
India ; the former is sold by the retailers at bd., and the latter at
3ti per lb., although the highest wholesale price of the latter is
usually only from 9.<?. ^d. to lOs. per cwt. It is sold in bags of
about 150 lbs. weight, and if a few families v/ould club together
for the purchase of a bag of that weight, it would thus not only
save expense, but add materially to their comforts, for it would
then not cost more than \cl. per lb. It is, indeed, advertised at
146". per cwt., which is at the rate of \\cL per lb. ; and, as the
duty is intended to be reduced, it will be still cheaper. Now,
although the Carolina rice is larger in the grain, as well as whiter.

On Cottage Economy and Cookery, 93

tlian the East India, and therefore generally preferred, yet It is
not at all better for family use, and it may be dressed in various
ways with advantage : first premising that, in whatever way it may
be cooked, it should always be well washed, and allowed to simmer
for a long time by the side of the fire in an earthen vessel, so as
to allow it to imbibe the liquor in which it is boiled ; or it may
be left in the liquor over night until it becomes soddened. For
instance, take a pound of rice, and if you have any of the liquor in
which meat has been boiled, put it into just as much as will cover
it, for if you put in more the rice will not absorb it. You must
also take care to occasionally stir it, and add a little more of the
liquor to keep the rice covered. When the grains are becoming
swollen, add three or four onions, and, if you have such a thing
in your garden as the love-apple, or tomata, take also as many of
these, leaving them all to stew until tender, and until the liquor
has been entirely absorbed; then mix them all together, and
season the mess with pepper and salt, stirring into it a piece of
butter. If broth cannot be had, it may be dressed with plain
water, and will be found a substantial and pleasant supper, even
without the tomatas, though they greatly improve it.

Or as thus : — Cut a quarter of a pound of bacon into pieces with
a few onions, thyme, parsley, and peppercorns, boiled in two
quarts of water, and, when it boils, put in a pound of clean whole
rice, and set the pot by the side of the fire. The rice will swell,
and thus imbibing all the water, will become quite soft : it will
then weigh nearly five pounds, which is more than the family can
consume at one meal, though eaten without either bread or pota-
toe ; and the cost of either of the above will not exceed 6<i. Even
if plainly boiled into a pudding, without either bacon, onions, or
tomatas, and eaten with either a little butter or treacle, the same
quantity will be more satisfactory to both the palate and the
stomach than a quartern loaf of bread, though not costing half
the price.

A much better mode than this is, however, to let it stew in 3
quarts of skim-milk until it becomes quite thick, and sweeten it
with sugar or molasses; or, if you have a Dutch oven, put it
into a deep dish, covered with a few thin slices of bread, without
eggs, and bake it. Indeed, two-thirds of that quantity, or 2 quarts
of milk and | lb. of rice, will be found amply sufficient as a
meal for four ; and, should any portion be left, it will be as good
cold as hot. If the milk be purchased, it will indeed be dearer ;
but many benevolent gentlemen, and some farmers, give away a
certain quantity of skimmed milk daily to their labourer, than
which few charities can be of greater benefit to a family. Even
if obliged to buy it, a poor man had better do so than be
without it, for in distant country places the price is seldom more

94 0)1 Cottage Economy and Cookenj.

than \d., or at the most \d. the quart; but, unfortunately, it is so
generally wanted for domestic purposes, that it is not often sold.

No instruction is necessary fur the making of pies and puddings
whether of fruit or meat; but we may just remark, that a meat-
pudding (when a labourer can afford it) is one of the most sub-
stantial and savoury dishes that can be brought to a hungry man's
table; and that if, instead of putting pie-crust over the meat,
you cover it with mashed potatoes, and put it either into the oven
or bake it by the side of the fire, it will answer quite as well as
paste. In Cornwall there Is a common practice among those
cottagers who bake at home of making little pasties for the din-
ners of those who may be working at a distance in the fields.
They will last the whole week, and are made of any kind of meat
or fruit, rolled up in a paste made of flour and suet or lard. A
couple of ounces of bacon, and | lb. of raw potatoes, both thinly
sliced and slightly seasoned, will be found sufficient for the meal ;
the pasty can be carried in the man's pocket, but it costs 4.d., as
thus : —

(L
J lb. of flour . . .1

Suet or lard . , .1

Potatoes . . . . Oi

i lb. of bacon . . . If

Oatmeal is a frequent diet of the Scotch and Irish peasantry,
as well as of many of the gentry, among whom it is known as
'' porridge, crowdy, and stiraboid."" The preparation is simply
to put a handful at a time gradually into a pot of warm water,
and a little salt, simmering it over the fire, and keeping it stirred
with the other hand, until it becomes as thick as a pudding ; or
in about ten minutes' time. It may then be eaten with a little
treacle, or with a piece of butter put into the centre ; but the
better way is to eat it with cold milk, taking a spoonful of the
stirabout with a mouthful of the milk ; for, if boiled in milk, it
is not near so good. Fine meal does not answer the purpose, and
the coarse-ground "Scotch oatmeal" is the best. Now, about
J lb. of this, along with 3 pints of milk, vvill make a substantial
and a very wholesome breakfast or supper for the family. It is
indeed a hearty food, and the cottager who seeks to support his
Avife and children both frugally and healthfully should never be
without it. The price in London is 4d. per quart, and the
quart weighs nearly If lb.; so, supposing the milk to be bought
at Id. the quart, three good meals can thus be got for 8^d.

Potatoes will ever be the peasant's standard vegetable ; for, if
of good mealy quality, they contain more nutriment than any other
root, and three to four pounds are equal in point of nourishment
to a pound of the best wheaten bread, besides having the great

yi

On Cottage Economy and CooTcery, 95

advantage of better filling the stomach ; but if of a soapy, waxy
kind, they are not only deficient in nutriment, but actually un-
wholesome. They are seldom dressed in any other way than plain
boiled, but there are different opinions as to the best mode — some
peeling them before, and others after they are boiled. In Lanca-
shire, where they are in general admirably dressed, they are first
peeled — which is certainly the cleanest as well as the least waste-
ful. The large potatoes are then cut into pieces of the same size
as the smaller, so that they may boil equally, and they are put
into as much cold water as will cover them to within about an
inch, but not entirely. Set them upon a moderate fire until they
begin to boil, and then throw in a little cold water to prevent
them from boiling too suddenly before they are done to the heart.
When done soft enough to admit of a fork, then pour the water
off ; for if it be allowed to remain a moment after the potatoes are
done, they will become watery ; uncover the pot, and set it at
such a distance from the fire as to prevent from burning, yet near
enough to keep the potatoes hot and allow their moisture to
evaporate ; and eat them immediately. If a handful of salt be
occasionally thrown into the water, it will be found to add to their
flavour ; and they should be boiled separately, or at least never
mixed into soup when raw, as their juice is not only unpleasant,
but thought by many persons to contain some poisonous quality.
A good and economical mode of dressing them, when
meat, or other vegetables are to be
boiled, is to have a large jug fitted
to the mouth of the saucepan, and
having a tin bottom of a convex, or
arched bottom, pierced with holes,
so as to allow the steam to ascend
from the boiler. By which simple
apparatus A will boil the soup ; B
will steam the potatoes; and C will
cover the whole, having a small orifice
in the lid to allow the steam to es-
cape, so as to prevent it from falling
down upon the potatoes and soddening them. Any ironmonger
will make it for a trifle.

In Ireland they make a very excellent dish, which is commonly
used by both the rich and poor, as thus : — take any quantity of
potatoes and greens, turnip-tops, or spinach, which have been
boiled, or are the cold remains of the previous day, for they will
l)e just as good as if boiled on purpose; mash the potatoes under
the rolling-pin until they are reduced nearly to powder, then chop
the greens as small as possible, and mix both them and the
potatoes well together with a minced raw onion ; season them

96 On Cottage Economy and Cookery.

with pepper and salt ; add a piece of butter, lard, or kitchen-
stuff, and put the whole into the pot to warm, taking care to stir
it until ready. This may be eaten without bread, and four to
five pounds of good potatoes, together with a good quantity of
greens (not cabbage) will be found a savoury mess for the
family, at the expense of not more than a penny per head, even if
the peasant has not a garden to grow his own vegetables.

If, instead of greens, a couple of salt herrings, or three or four
pilchards boiled, stripped of their heads, fins, and tail, and
shredded into small pieces, be mixed up and dressed in the same
manner, either with or without the onion, the mess will be found
equally good ; and if you have fat enough to fry it in the pan, or
if you take the trouble to brown it before the fire, it will be still
better. It may also be observed that salt-fish of any sort, if
beaten up with potatoes when boiled, goes farther than when
eaten separately.

Potatoes may also be 7nade into cakes, and baked in a few
minutes over the fire upon a flat iron plate, having short legs upon
which it is supported, and commonly known among the Irish
peasantry as " a griddle." It is simply done by mashing the boiled
potatoes into flour with the rolling-pin, and binding them together
either with a small quantity of milk, or a little fat, and flavouring
them with a little salt, then rolling the paste out into cakes of a
quarter of an inch thick, placing them upon the hot griddle, and
turning them when done on one side. Or they may be made in
the same manner, though more like bread, by pouring upon the
mashed potatoes a moderate quantity of batter made either of
wheaten flour or oatmeal and milk, mixing it thoroughly with the
paste, and pricking the cakes with a fork to render them light.

On the jnode of making bread we offer no instruction, except
that, when the cottager has got an oven, it should be baked at
home, and made of household flour ; but this observation may be
made, that in former days our forefathers were accustomed to eat
rye and barley bread ; and throughout the whole of the north of
Germany and Poland, though producing abundant crops of wheat,
no other kind of bread than that made from rye is generally eaten,
yet no peasantry in Europe are more strong and healthy. The
appearance of the bread is not indeed so inviting as that of wheat,
but the flavour is extremely pleasant, the quality is more nutri-
tious than that made from barley. Now, it is usually calcu-
lated that a man, his wife, and two children eat from three to
four pounds of bread daily. The price of the quartern loaf of
household wheaten bread is at present eight-jjence ; but that of
rye can be made for Jive-pence ; and, if this were used, it would
occasion a saving of about eighteen-pcnce in the poor man's
weekly wages.

071 Cottage Economy and Cookery* 97*

In short, close economy is the very life and existence of a poor
mans comforts. Without it he will run in arrear with every one
with whom he deals ; starvation will stare him in the face ; the
wretchedness of his wife and children will drive him in despair
to the beer-shop ; and that, finally, as a drunkard, a pilferer, and
a poacher, to the workhouse ; whereas, if on the Saturday night
he finds that by good management he has made both ends meet,
without running into debt, he wdll have the heart-felt satisfaction
of providing bread for his children, and perhaps for a worn-out
parent who fed him while he was himself yet more helpless ; he
will shun the profligate associates of the pot-house ; he will cling
to his humble home, and look forward with satisfaction to his
evening meal ; his family will be happy, and himself respected
in his station ; and if at the close of the week he can lay by a six-
pence, he will, by pursuing the same plan, acquire habits of
careful industry, which will at length surely render him to a
certain degree independent. It can, however, only be done by
his having in hand at least a week's wages to the fore ; so as to
enable his wife to buy everything for ready money, without having
a score at the chandler's shop.

He should, therefore, pinch and screw the family even in the
commonest necessaries until he gets it ; for, if in debt to the
shopkeeper, he will pay for everything at the highest price, and
of the worst qualit}^ Neither can it be done unless, besides
being of industrious habits, he is a good workman ; for, low as
wages now are, yet such is the present competition for employ-
ment, that it is to be feared no labourer who is not a superior
workman can look for more than a mere subsistence ; and al-
though the price of labour may be higher in many of the mining
and manufacturing than in the purely agricultural districts, there
is in such places a corresponding increase in the cost of the neces-
saries of life, which deprives the workman of any additional benefit.
He should toil early and late to make himself perfect in plough-
ing, ditching, draining, and every farming practice which he may
be called upon to execute. He will then not only have constant
employment at the highest wages, but also frequent profitable jobs
at task- work ; and if known to be a trustworthy, intelligent fellow,
he may look forward to become the bailiff of the farm, with the
prospect of one day renting land for himself. This, to be sure,
is the work of time, for a good character cannot be acquired in a
moment ; but farmers and land-agents are not unobservant of the
habits and qualities of those employed under them, and will ever
prefer a man on whom they know that dependence can be placed.

If the poor man does this on his part, there can be no doubt
that the rich will do theirs. They are the natural guardians of
the poor, and they cannot but discover their own advantage in

VOL. III. H

98 071 Cottage Economy and Cookery.

the conviction that whatever is calculated to improve the health
will add to the strength of the labourers who work for them, and
thus increase the permanent welfare of the whole body. Every
landowner and farmer has it more or less in his own power to
contribute to the comforts of the peasantry, and to enable them,
by honest industry, to guard themselves from the humiliating
prospect of parish relief. Their attention to it tends to foster a
kindly feeling between man and man in the different ranks of
society, and to encourage in the poor man's breast that wholesome
sense of independence, without which he must feel himself de-
graded in the scale of creation. It can be done by goodnatured
advice, and occasional assistance, even without any advance of
wages. A small loan of money, to be gradually repaid out of the
weekly wages, will go far to put an end to that system of credit
which renders him dependent on the village shopkeeper. The
adoption of money-payments, instead of allowances in beer, would
also be desirable; and, in short, the farmer who stretches forth a
helping hand in aid of a sober, industrious servant, will reap his
reward not only in his own sense of benevolence, but also in the
increased attention of the labourer.

The most anxious wish is entertained by the Royal English
Agricultural Society to better by every means in their power the
condition of the rural peasantry, as that portion of the community
may justly be considered the most peaceable, orderly, and useful
of the labouring classes. The allotment system has already done
much towards creating a peaceful sphit of social as well as pro-
fitable family employment in the occupations of the garden, with
increased attachment to home, and, aided by that light of religious
education which is now shedding its benign influence over the
land, will, it is devoutly hoped, eventually lead to that domestic
happiness of which it is the surest foundation.

A plot of ground allotted as a garden around a cottage is, how-
ever, far preferable to one placed at a distance ; for the cottager's
wife is equal to work, and would fain employ herself frequently
in her garden, if she had it within her reach. But she cannot
leave her infant in its cradle, nor the child crawling upon the floor
and requiring constant attention. She is, therefore, deprived of
the means of thus assisting her husband in his labours ; and even
when he returns to his home, how much more pleasant will he
find his cot when surrounded by the smiling produce of their toil,
than if that be not under their view.

We recommend the little tract on ' Cottage Gardening,' pub-
lished by Mr. Main, under the superintendence of this Society, to
the attention of every cottager ; for he will there find, for a penny,
every necessary direction regarding the management of his ground
and cropping, in the most simple and efficient manner. We only

On Cottage Economy and Cookery. 99

differ from him on his objecting to fruit-trees; for although we
admit that they should not encumber a small garden, yet two or
three apple and plum trees afford a pleasant addition to family-
fare in the making of a substantial pudding.

There is also one very profitable source of income to a cottager,
which is denied to him who is not possessed of a garden at home :
that is, the keeping of bees, which industrious insects amply repay
the trifling care and attention necessary to preserve them. They
require no expensive method of treatment; they demand no
trouble, and a row of bee-hives will meet a heavy rent, besides
affording a grateful luxury to their keeper : but they should be
securely guarded from pilferers. A treatise on bees would oc-
cupy too much space for this essay; but any man who will
inquire the mode adopted by a neighbour who keeps them, may
easily learn the method ; and if he cannot purchase a hive, he
may construct it himself without the least difficulty.

Cobbett's advice, to "grow mustard in your own garden,"
ought not to be neglected ; for a square yard of ground will be \
sufficient ; and if you have not a small hand-mill to grind it, it '"'
may be pounded in a mortar as wanted for use, and will answer
quite as well, if not better, than the trash frequently sold as
^^ Durham."

Vinegar should also be made at home. This can be easily
done by having a small runlet, or a large unglazed earthen jar,
placed in a warm spot, exposed to the sun during the summer,
and near the chimney-corner in the winter, putting into it either a
pound or two of treacle and a quart of water, as a foundation,
and leaving out the bung, or slightly covering the mouth of the
jar, so as to prevent the introduction of dust, but not to exclude
the air. Then, whenever you have a few gooseberries and cur-
rants, or any fruit of a juicy kind, put a few of their stalks, rind
and all, into the vessel, together with any remains which you may
occasionally have of beer, and if you have not enough to cover
the fruit, add a little warm water. When the cask is full, leave it
there until it begins to ferment, which in no great time will render
the liquor quite sour ; and after it has stood long enough to be-
come clear, it may be then drawn off as vinegar. It may not be
strong ; but it will be quite as good as that usually sold in the
country shops for two or three shillings the gallon, besides thus
affording plenty for pickling and the other uses of the family.

In many of our inland counties, although there is a great
scarcity of fuel, yet the ashes and cinders are often cast out before
the cottage-door. Now, instead of this waste, they should be
mixed up with an equal quantity of small-coal and some clay to
bind them, together with water ; then mix the heap into mortar ;
make that into bricks ; and, when dried in the sun, put them at

H 2

100 On Cottage Economy and Cookery,

the back of the fire, where they will soon heat, and form a useful
saving; of coals and wood.

The foregoing instructions are, however, chiefly addressed to
the housewife ; for if it be the husband's business to bring home
money, it is hers to see that none of his earnings go foolishly out
of it. To attach a man to his home it is necessary that home
should have attractions ; and if his wife is a slattern, everything
will go wrong ; but if she be industrious, thrifty, and good-tem-
pered, cleanly in her person and her cottage, all will then go
right. She will forego tea and gossip ; she will put everything in
the neatest order ; her little fire trimmed and her hearth swept
up for the reception of her husband on his return from labour.
Whatever may have been her cares during the day, she will meet
him with the smile of welcome ; the family-meal will close the
night in social enjoyment, and he will find as cheerful and as
happy a home as if he were the lord of the manor.

'X.—On the Present State of Agricultural Mechanics, and on
the Improvement of u'hich the varioiis Implements now in use
may he suscejrtihle. By John Morton, Jun. Prize Essay.

It is one of the most satisfactory marks of the late revival of
agriculture in England, that it has caused inquiries, not only into
what formerly excited the greater interest, the breed and manage-
ment of live stock, but also into every branch of arable farming.
It is intended in the following essay on agricultural mechanics —
one of the most important of these branches — to describe each
implement in succession under separate heads, according to the
orcler in which they are made use of in cultivation.

It is difficult to conceive what causes can have combined to
produce the strange variety existing in the construction of imple-
ments. Differences in the practice of various districts, handed
down from time immemorial, have probably been accompanied by
differences in the form of the agricultural machines used.
Differences in the soil also of various districts must have had
some influence in causing this variety. It will be attempted in
the sequel to show how far variations in the form of several im-
plements are required by variations in the nature of the land they
are required to work ; at present it is sufficient to observe that the
immense variety now existing is certainly unnecessary, and only
shows our want of acquaintance with the correct principles of their
construction.

Implements may be divided into four classes, following the
order of succession in which they are used on the farm : —

On Acjincultw^al Mechanics. 101

I. Implements used in tilling the land and in tlie cultivation
of crops.

II. Implements used in harvesting the crops.

III. Implements used in preparing the crop for market.

I V. Implements used in preparing the crops for food for the
Stock on the farm.

I. The first class of implements, according to this division, are
those employed in bringing the land into a fit state for the re-
ception of the seed, and in keeping it in a proper state of cul-
tivation during the growth of the plant ; and the first to be
described under this head are the implements used in freeing land
from superabundant water, the various descriptions of draining-
plough, and the subsoil-plough, their valuable auxiliary. Then
having by the use of these implements got our land into such a
state that the other implements of tillage may be used with ad-
vantage, we shall come to speak of the plough, the harrow, the
roller, and the various forms of the grubber or cultivator, with the
valuable implements of drill-husbandry allied to them — ^the horse-
hoe and the drill- harrow. Then we shall speak of the various
forms of sowing-machines, whether for scattering the seed broad-
cast or sowing them in drills ; and lastly, as connected with every
stage of cultivation, the cart and the waggon.

1 . Implements of Drainage.

In tracing the history of thorough drainage we do not require
to go very far back. The practice is^ in fact, still in its infancy ;
certainly, however, no branch of agricultural practice has, in so
short a time, effected such strikingly beneficial results as the
frequent drain- system.

Drainage was in former times restricted to directing the water
of springs into proper channels, and hindering them from form-
ing marshes. In this, great improvement was effected by Mr.
Elkington, of Warwickshire, who did not merely apply himself
to the confining and conveying away of the water alter it had
reached the surface, but, by means of boring-tools, probed the
ground to the source of the spring, and took the water altogether
out of its former course, directing into one channel what had
formerly, by springs, overspread a considerable extent.

The removal of the water of springs, which used to stagnate on
the soil, was a great good effected, but it was not generally known
till Mr. Smith, of Deanston, pointed out the fact that, of the land
injured by stagnant water, the great portion is v/etted, not by
water springing from the land, but by water falling and retained
on the surface. The full acknowledgment of this fact will, of
course, be followed by the application of the only remedy — that

102 On Agricultural Mechanics.

proposed by Mr. Smith — the frequent-drain system. This con-
sists in cutting parallel drains at intervals varying from a half to
one-eighth of a chain, and of proper depth, and in conveying the
water from them to a proper outlet by means of a larger main
drain, into which they all run.

In the great majority of cases land is such that, in the cutting
of drains, the spade, and often the pickaxe, is required ; and in all
cases the most efficient drainage is that performed by the hand.
The ditches, however, in those rare cases where the subsoil is
clayey and free from stones, as in alluvial soils^ may be cut by an
implement which turns out the whole of it, or nearly all of it, at
once. The first mention I have seen of such an implement,
which, however, seems only to have been applied to the cutting
of grips or surface-ditches, is in Mr. Douglas's report of Rox-
burgh and Selkirkshire, 1813, in which he speaks of " a kind of
instrument or plough which cuts and removes a square foot of
earth ; and with six horses and five men will drain a greater
extent in a day than 100 men." This, it seems, did not obtain
general use : since, however, Mr. Smith gave such an impulse to
the adoption of a system of thorough drainage, a plough for the
purpose of cutting out a trench has been invented by Mr. Mac
Ewen, of Blackdub, in the Carse of Stirling, where it is much
employed. Though I have seen this implement, I never saw it
at work ; but it is said to answer admirably on the soft alluvial
clay of the Carse, and testimonials have been received by the in-
ventor, which show that by perseverance in its use it has answered
well also on the more indurated and stony clays of the hilly land
in the neighbourhood.

Great force is required to work this implement ; ten or twelve
horses, with a man to each pair, are required, besides two men to
work the plough. The cost of this, with the tear and wear of the
implement, is estimated at 3/. \2s. per day, viz., the horses at
4^. a-day, the men at 2s., and the tear and wear of the plough
at 1*. per horse. It will cut out 520 roods of 36 yards in a-day,
which gives 2d. per 36 yards as the cost : this is not one-twelfth
part of the cost of digging with the spade. The trench thus
formed is of great width ; but as the same plough may be applied
to replacing the furrow turned out, this does not signify. Before
filling in the stones or placing the tiles, a man with a small spade
forms a space for them, and corrects any deviations from the
uniform fall of the bottom. This space of perhaps 4 or 6 inches
in depth, added to 20 or 22 inches, the depth of the furrow turned
out, makes the whole depth of the drain rather more than 2 feet.
This is one of the most successful of the many attempts which
have been made to diminish the expense of cutting drains.

The mole-plough, the action of which consists in making a

On Agricultural Mechanics. J08

bore or tunnel through the soil at the depth of 18 or 20 inches,
without removing the surface, is another of these attempts, but is
by no means so good a one. It is only in those soils in which
such a bore will stand, and not fill up, that this machine can be
used, and then the mode of its action necessarily hardens and
condenses the clay through which it passes, making it dense and
impervious around the pipe which it leaves behind it.

The machine consists of a block of wood or piece of iron of a
sugar-loaf form, attached by one or sometimes two narrow but
strong uprights, about 2 feet long, to a strong framework of wood,
to which the draught-chains are fixed. It is drawn either by a
strong force of horses, or by a windlass and chain, which is moved
from drain to drain as each is completed. The two uprights
necessarily cut through the land above the drain, and so far con-
nects it with the open air ; but as they are narrow, the passage
formed by them fills up, the sides collapsing as the machine
passes.

A series of parallel drains is thus formed at a depth of
18 inches. These are connected with a master-drain, dug with
the spade, into which the water from them runs and finds an
outlet from the field : when this is filled in, the drainage is com-
plete. Its permanency and efficiency of course depend on the
nature of the soil and the subsoil it passes through. Under the
most advantageous circumstances, however, it does not last long.
This implement has been long in use, it is referred to in many of
the county surveys of 1813. The use of the capstan also to
draw it along, instead of employing a great number of horses, was
then frequent.

A better way of draining, however, is that called clay-draining.
A trench 20 inches deep, 2 inches wide at bottom, and 10 inches
wide at top, is cut with long narrow spades, which do not require
the men using them to descend into the trench. After the trench has
been dug a wooden mandril is made use of. It is formed of pieces
of wood 6 inches deep, 2 inches wide at bottom, 4 inches wide at
top, and from 9 to 12 inches long, hinged together so as to give
the whole chain flexibility, and fits the bottom of the ditch to a
height of 6 inches. The clay of the subsoil is placed above it,
and being wetted, is hammered down above it, and the rest of the
soil is then thrown in. The mandril is then drawn along by
means of a long pole pointed at one end, to which it is attached
by a chain near the pointed end : this pole is made to act as a
lever. (See figure.) On being drawn along, more earth is thrown
in and hammered down above it, and so the work proceeds. This
is more durable than the work performed by the mole-plough.
It costs about I4d. per chain. Neither of these modes of drain-
ing, it is evident, admits of the action of the subsoil-plough above

104

On Agricultural Mechanics.

them : so far from that, they are very apt to be filled u}5 by the
treading of the horses in the ordinary cultivation of the land : they
are, in fact, suited only for the drainage of pasture-land.

The most efficient drainage, as I have said, is that performed
by the hand, and in which broken stones or tiles are used ; and
when the subsoil-plough is used after it, this wall, there is no
doubtj prove the most economical also.

2. Subsoil-Plough.

We now come to the consideration of the subsoil -plough. This
implement, though only lately brought into prominent notice by
Mr. Smith, of Deanston, seems to have been used in many dis-
tricts of England long ago. Thus, in the Report of Lancashire,
by Dickson, I find the following notice of the '' miner or deep-
stirring plough :" — " This is another tool of the plough kind,
somewhat similar in its nature, which was introduced into the
county nearly about the same period as the trench-plough (* long
since,' seep. 157). It simply consists of a ploughshare firmly
fixed to a strong beam, by means of a strong sheath and handle,
without any mould-board. It is usually drawn by four or more
horses, being made to follow, in the furrow, the common plough,
so as to penetrate into, loosen, and stir up the undersoil without
turning it up, to the depth of from 8 to 12 inches below the tract
in which that plough had gone."

A more accurate description of the way in which the imple-
ment is used than is contained in this paragraph of 1813 could
not be given now. The use of it did not, however, spread, doubt-
less because it was unaccompanied by that which must always
precede it — thorough drainage; and it was not till Mr. Smith
showed, on his farm at Deanston, the immense advantages fol-
lowing the adoption of both operations together, that either ob-

On Agricidtural Mechanics. 105

tamed that high place in the practice of good farming which they
now hold.

Mr. Smith's subsoil-plough consists of the ordinary framework of a
plough, -without the mould-board, made strong enough to stand the
shocks and the strain to which an implement requiring the force of four
or six horses to work it must be subjected. This framework is about

15 feet long. A sole-plate, on which a feather-shaped or pointed sock
shps, is attached to it by means of two uprights and a curved coulter.
The height of the plough, when held in a working position, from the
sole-plate to the beam, is about 22 inches. It is thus enabled to go
to a depth of 20 inches. From the furrow side of the sock a spur pro-
jects, over which the mass of subsoil cut by the coulter and share is
raised and broken, and falls down again. By the action of this spur,
and of the whole implement, the subsoil is effectually stirred, without
any of it being lifted to the surface. The effect of subsequent deep
ploughing, after the action of the air has thus sufficiently meliorated the
subsoil, will be beneficial, while without this previous cultivation it
would have been injurious. The subsoil-plough requires at least four
horses. The draught, in a rather clayey soil, was IH cvvt., going from

16 to 18 inches deep. The draught of the common plough, which pre-
ceded it, and turned out the furrow in which it worked, was about 3
cwt. ; so that the work for the horses was about the same in either case.
It is found that the wider the furrow is turned out, the more efficient is
the operation. In a subsoil ploughing-match, held at Sterling in 1840,
it was found that the best work was done by that subsoil-plough which
was preceded by the old Scotch plough, which casts a very wide furrow.
It is evident that this does not necessarily imply that the subsoil-plough
shall pass along a fewer number of furrows in a given width of land than
where the furrow is narrow^er, for the width of the furrow depends not
on that of the furrow-slice, but on the width of the plough, which thrusts
the furrow-slice from the fast-land. The expense of the operation of
subsoil-ploughing is considerable. It varies jfrom 24-s. to 30s. per acre,
according to the nature of the land ; and it is evident that in rough
strong land, where the pickaxe is afterwards required to remove the ob-
structions which the plough has met with, the expense will be much
greater than this. This is a statement of the debit side of the farmer's
account of subsoil-ploughing. To find the credit side of the account, he
must compare his land as it was, — wet or scorched, according to the
weather, on which it was wholly dependent, — with his land as it now is
after the operation, — free and friable, dry and open; — and he must take
the crop he raises now, at less expense, too, than formerly ; for the land,
being drier, is more easily tilled ; and he must compare this crop with
that he used to raise on the same land. The difference will pay a very
great per centage on the capital he has laid out.

Several attempts have been made to diminish the expense of
the operation of subsoil-ploughing. The first of them is by Mr.
Pusey. A description of the Charlbury subsoil-plough is given
in the 4th part of the 1st vol. of the ' Journal.' It combines in one
implement both the ploughs used in the operation of subsoiling.

106 On Agricultural Mechanics.

It not only stirs the subsoil, but opens the furrow in which the
subsoil-plough works. It consists in the attachment of a strong
tine, similar to those used in Biddel's scarifier, to the common
plough, in a position in which it acts after the furrow -slice has
been turned.

[The Charlbury Subsoil Plough.]

This implement, doing all the work, requires, according to an
experiment recorded there, less force to work it than the subsoil-
plough, doing only one portion of the operation. It cannot, how-
ever, be so efficient in thoroughly stirring the subsoil as the
original implement. The other attempt at diminishing the ex-
pense of subsoil ploughing is by Mr. Armstrong, of Sterlingshire,
for which he received premiums from the Sterlingshire Agricul-
tural Society and from the Highland Society. A description of
it was given by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, at an agricultural meet-
ing lately, which I transcribe. The inventor has adapted the
principle of Mr. Wilkie's turn-wrest plough to Smith's subsoil-
plough.

" The general frame-work is that of a subsoil-plough rather
under the medium size, and to it is attached a hinged mould-
board, similar to the mould-board of Mr. Smith's hill-side or
turn- wrest plough. By means of this arrangement the plough
can be used for removing the furrow preceding the operation of
the subsoil -plough, and, when the furrow has been removed, the
mould-board being moved upon its hinges, from its working posi-
tion, rests over the beam of the plough, whilst the instrument is
used for subsoiling in the bottom of the furrow just removed.
Thus the operation of removing the furrow and subsoiling can be
alternately performed with the same implement, by the same
ploughman, and the same team of horses, l3y a simple movement
of the mould-board, which is done in an instant by the hand of
the ploughman at each turning. The additional weight of the
mould-board serves to keep down the plough whilst subsoiling in
difficult ground. The judges consider this implement well con-
trived, and as being an important boon to small farmers, and as

On Agricultural Mechanics. 107

certain to give great facility to the extension amongst them of the
admirable system of subsoil-ploughing."

On the same principle, and similar in its mode of action to the
subsoil-plough, is the rackheath-plough, invented by Sir Edward
Stracey.

3. The Plough.

The plough has always been the most important of agricultural
implements. Its origin is as ancient as the art of agriculture.
In the earlier portion of our world's history it was very simple.
Mankind, scattered few and far between, did not then require to
make use of the poorer and more unprofitable descriptions of soil,
and the rich lands they tilled yielded them ample return, though
but very slightly cultivated. This implement, accordingly, as
then used, merely scratched the surface of the ground, or stirred
it a few inches deep. Since then great alterations have been
made in its form. The implement has been made not only to
stir the soil, but to turn a sod. This probably took place when
experience had taught that the poorer soils, which were at length
brought into cultivation, could not be profitably tilled by a mere
stirring of the surface. Even now, the form of many of our
ploughs shows plainly the origin from whence they sprung. The
pointed stick, which was originally used, was, probably, gradually
widened out into the form of a cone ; and, to render its action
efficient, the under part of this cone being cut away, we at once
have the rounded breast and primitive appearance of many of our
mould-boards. Unless we consider this to be the origin of this
form of the mould-board, it is difficult to conceive how experience
and practice would lead to the opinion, so manifestly inaccurate,
that this is the best form, the one of easiest draught.

Of no implement is there a greater variety than of the plough.
There are full-breasted ploughs, and hollow-breasted plouglis ;
there are wheel and swing ploughs ; ploughs with fixed mould -
boards, and turn-wrest ploughs ; ploughs with two handles, and
one-handled ploughs.

The writer of an excellent article '' On Ploughs and Plough-
ing," in the ' Farmer's Magazine' for January, 1841, divides all
these into three classes : the Scotch swing-plough ; the midland
counties plough with one or two wheels; and the turn- wrest
plough of some southern districts. The present Scotch plough
is entirely different from the plough in general use thirty or
forty years ago. There were, indeed, as great a variety in that
country then as there are in England now. When, however, this
form was introduced, it soon obtained almost universal adop-
tion, and is now the only implement of the kind in use. It is
curious that it should not have spread southwards as rapidly as it

108

On Agricultural Mechanics.

did northwards. Its use in England is confined to the border
counties. The old Scotch plough was as clumsy as any of the
clumsiest of the English swing-ploughs now used. It was not,
however, the original of the present swing-plough. The original
of Small's ploughs came from Holland or Flanders into York-
shire, and was thence introduced into Scotland, where it acquired
the name of the Rotherham plough. At this time Small, an
ingenious mechanic of Berwickshire, became known to J. Ren-
ton, Esq., of Launceston in that county, who, perceiving his
talents, erected the necessary buildings for an extensive plough
factory, and placed him over it. Here Small devoted his ener-
gies to the improvement of the Rotherham plough ; and the
alterations he made on it soon deservedly gave it the name of
Small's plough. Small's plough soon drove all the cumbrous
implements then made in Scotland out of it, and now it is in
universal use. Slight alterations have been made in it, and every
ploughwright of eminence has his own form of the mould-board,
but they differ but slightly, and Small's is the basis of them all.

Wilkie, one of the best of these makers, obtained and continues
to possess, a high degree of celebrity for the excellence of his
implements. He has lately constructed a plough to which se-
veral different mould-boards are attachable, and this, it will be
seen, is the only variety which is required in the form of the
plough. The Scotch mould-board is most gradual in the twist
it gives to the furrow.

[Clarke's Plough. Scale ^.]

The annexed are two views of the Scotch plough of Clarke, a
Stirlingshire ploughwright ; they are drawn on a scale of jV^^^-
It is generally made wholly of iron. Small's first improvement
was to substitute iron for wood in the construction of the plough.

The immense variety of wheel-ploughs, as they are used in the
midland counties, can better be illustrated by a series of figures

On Agricultural Mechanics.

109

than bj detailed description of each, which indeed I am not qua-

lified to give.

[The Kentish Turn-wrest. See ' Penny Cyclopsedia.']

The Kentish turn-wrest plough, used for working the clayey
and chalky soils of that county and several of the neighbouring
counties, is the representation of the third class of plough. It is
certainly a most clumsy implement, and its capability of breaking
up the stiff lands of those districts is evidently due, not to any
peculiar excellence of form, but to its great strength and weight,
and the power applied to it. Its form is adapted, not for cutting
a sod, but rather for tearing and forcing it from the land. The
annexed figure represents it in its original and most general form,
which has been much improved by Messrs. Ransome. The share
is a broad chisel-edge, and the coulter, by means of an elastic stick,
which is made to press against one side or other of that part of it
above the beam, is directed and kept on that side of it next the
unploughed land. The plan of turn- wrest ploughing, turning all
the sods one way and avoiding all furrows, is necessary on the
steep hill-sides, and is much the best way of cultivating perfectly
dry land.

Mr. Smith, of Deanston, now always uses the turn-wrest
plough ; and the regular and uniform appearance of the fields at
Deanston is beautiful. The maker of this turn-wrest plough is
Wilkie ; the annexed is a drawing of it.

[Wilkie's Tunnvrest, or Hill-side Plough.]

Each of the two mould-boards is attached to the rod b by two
bands of iron cc, by which, with the end of the handle d, they are

110 On Agricultural Mechanics.

alternately raised or depressed ; while the one is in a working
position, the other is carried above. The rod b, extendin^: to
the coulter at/ in moving the mould-board moves also the coulter
one inch at the point, so as to give it the proper position with
the point of the sock at g.

Having thus seen the immense variety that exists among
ploughs, it may be well, before inquiring into what ought to be
the form of the plough, to inquire what it is required to do.

The objects in ploughing are three ; and the mode of plough-
ing must of course be varied to suit the object.

The furrow is opened up, and the furrow-slice is turned,

1. That the after-action of the harrow in covering the seed
may be facilitated, and

2. That a new surface of mould may be exposed, or

3. That anything laid on the surface may be buried.

Now, it is evident that these being the objects of ploughing,
they cannot vary so much as to require that immense variety of
implements which exists. The position in which the furrow-slice
will lie does not depend on the plough, except in so far as its form
and dimensions are regulated by that implement. When once
the form of a series of slices which are to rest on one another is
fixed on, then their position is also determined. The form of
the furrow- slice then, as it regulates its after position, must be
regulated according to the work to be done.

First, then, with regard to the first object of ploughing, the
preparation of the ground for the after- action of the harrow. It is
demonstrable that when the angle of inclination of the furrow-slice
is 45°, there is a greater quantity of earth raised above the level
in the form of ribs than under any other circumstance. Now, as
the action of the harrow will tear this lip or series of lips down,
the more earth there is contained in them the greater will be the
depth of loose mould thus formed. Now it is also demonstrable
that this position of the furrow- slice can only be obtained when, the
breadth of the furrow- slice being 10 inches, the depth is about 7.
Here, then, we have at once the form and position of the sod, by
the adoption of which we shall derive the greatest advantage from
a subsequent harrowing.

The second object of ploughing being to expose a fresh sur-
face of mould to the action of the air, it is evidently important to
know under what circumstances the greatest amount of surface
will be exposed. It will be at once seen from the subjoined
solution of the question,* that this is the case when, as before,
the width being 10 inches, the depth of the sod is 7 inches. It
will then lie at an angle of 45°, and the width of the portion on

* See Appendix.

On Agricultural Mechanics. Ill

either side of it will be equal. This position, then, has the neat-
est appearance, while at the same time it answers two most im-
portant purposes of ploughing.

And now with respect to the third object of ploughing, — it is
obvious that in order to bury anything effectually, the furrow-slice
should as nearly as possible be turned upside down.

This will be the case when the breadth is great in proportion
to the depth, and it will therefore be most perfectly answered
when, the breadth being fixed on, the land is ploughed very shal-
low. Shallow ploughing too is what experience points out as
proper when covering manure ; and it is evident that, provided
the manure have sufficient earth above it to absorb the products
of its fermentation, its nearness to the surface^ that its decompo-
sition may rapidly take place, is an advantage.

Having now seen what a plough is required to do, we have to
consider the form of the implement which shall best effect these
objects ; and as a consequence of what we have already said, we
must first ascertain what form of plough will do the best work,
and then see how this form may be altered to diminish the
draught.

A plough consists of three parts : —

1st. The frame -work ;

2nd. The cutting parts ;

3rd. The mould-board.

1. The Frame-work.

The frame -work of the plough must he regulated by the work to
he done, so far as strength to sustain the tear and wear and the shocks
of the roughest work is considered ; but its dimensions, the length of
the beam and the length of the stilts or handles, as they only affect or
regulate the power which the man or the horse has over the implement,
need not vary with the work to be performed. These are wholly inde-
pendent of the consistence of the land to be ploughed, or of the form of
the furrow-slice, which both vary, and their dimension may therefore
be fixed ; and amidst; the immense variety of forms of the plough, it is
satisfactory to know that this point, one so much affecting the appear-
ance of the implement, need not vary.

The length of the beam in some degree affects the power of the horse
over the implement. If it be long, it is evident that the straightness of
the furrow will be less affected by any deviation of the horse from the
straight path, and the motion of the implement will be more regular.
This, however, is as well ensured by lengthening the draught-chain as
by lengthening the beam.

The longer the handles of the plough, and the shorter the beam in
proportion, the more power will the man have over his implement.
There are, however, limits to both of these points, which convenience
in the length of the implement impose. Very excellent dimensions are

112 On Agricultural Mechanics.

those of the Scotch ploughs of Clarke and Fergusson, plough-makers
of Stirlingshire (see woodcut). The length of the beam is in these
ploughs 3 feet, and that of the handles is 5 J feet; that of the whole
plough is lOrr feet, which leaves 21 inches for that part of the frame-
work to which the body of the plough is attached.

The following is a sketch of the mere frame-work of their
plough^ on a scale of iVth : —

[Frame-work of Clark's Plough. Scale -jL.]

2. The Cutting Parts.

The cutting parts of the plough are, the share, which cuts
horizontally the bottom of the slice, and the coulter, which cuts
it vertically from the fast land, of which it forms part. It is
evident that these should cut it perfectly.

There should be no tearing when the mould-board begins to work.
Any tearing must require an otherwise unnecessary exertion of power,
and will increase the draught. In some districts an invention has been
tried which does away altogether with the attachment of the coulter to
the beam of the plough, and provides in its place a projecting edge,
standing up from the sock on the vertical plane of the side of the plough,
but inclining backwards towards the plough, at a considerable angle.
This, of course, ensured the perfect cutting of the sod ; but it was found
in practice that it encountered more obstruction, and was more liable to
bend, or, if made of cast-metal, to break, than the common arrangement
for the purpose: it was, therefore, abandoned. It is evident also that
the sides of the furrow-slice should be square ; that the section of the
sod should be rectangular. It is obvious that as the furrow-slice, sup-
posing in the annexed figures a ft c <:/ to be a section of it, must
turn around the point d, if the angle ft c r/ is an acute angle, it will be
held fast, and must either be thrust aside beyond the reach of the pro-
jecting ledge e b c, or forced through it ; either of these takes place
under a waste of power. In order, then, to be capable of turning, it
must be either rectangular, or the angle bad must be obtuse. Now
there are two advantages connected with its being a right angle. A"
greater amount of surface will be exposed : compare the two annexed
figures (1 and 3). It is evident that, other things being equal, the
smaller the angle the greater will be the surface exposed. A greater
depth of mould will also be torn down by the harrows, a greater quan-
tity of earth being raised above the general level in the form of ribs,

O.i AijricuUural Mechcv

113

when the aiigle is acute, than when it is obtuse. The reUitlve position
of the share and the coulter must then be such that they may cut a
square-cornered sod. With regard to their actual position in the plough,
it is obvious that the more inclined they are to their work, the more easily
will it be accomplished. The cut will be more gradual — less abrupt.
They should, therefore, be as much inclined to their work as is con-
sistent with a convenient form of the plough.

■ ^' c/////y////d:

Now it is evident that, though it may be necessary, when altering the
dimensions of your furrow-slice, making the plough go deeper or shal-
lower, or when going from one description of soil to another, as from a
clayey to a strong soil, to alter the position of the share or of the coulter ;
yet there can, under no circumstances, be any necessity for an alteration
in the /b7m of those parts of the plough. Here, then, is another part
of the plough which may be constant. We shall find that of all the parts
of the plough the mould-board alone will require to vary with the work
to be done. There should, howxver, be a means of altering the position
of the coulter; and this is one of the reasons of the failure of that which,
as I have said, has been tried instead of it.

There are other means of regulating the position of the plough,
according to the nature of its work, which should, perhaps, have been
mentioned when the framework of the plough was described. It is
evident that the line drawn from the horses' shoulders, through the point
of attachment of the draught-chains to the plough, ought, if lengthened,
to pass through the centre of the resistance met with by the plough at
work. Should it be otherwise — should the line so lengthened strike the
mould-board at a point higher, for instance, than the centre of resistance,
then the effect of the draught will be to pull the plough over, and sink
the point of the share, till the implement, by increasing the depth of the
land ploughed, has raised the centre of resistance higher up the mould-
board. Should it strike the mould-board to the right or left of this
centre, then the plough in the same manner, in order that this centre
may be brought into the line of draught, will be forced to take a greater
or less width of land. This is the w ay in which the means act which
are adopted for altering the dimensions of the furrow-slice.

VOL. III. I

114

On ylgrlcultural Mechanics.

The bridle of the plough admits of the attachment of the draught-chain
to the plough iDeing shifted to the right or left ; and so it enables the
ploughman to increase or dimhiish the width of his furrow ; and the
bridle, by means of a screw or otherwise (see annexed figures), may be
elevated or depressed, and so the depth of the furrow may be increased
or diminished.*

3. The Mould- Board.

We now come to the consideration of the third portion of the plough,
the mould-board. This, we shall find, is the only portion which requires
to be varied; and even in this single point it is questionable how far
economy would require a variety of forms.

In inquiring what is the proper form of the mould-board, the pro-
priety of first making an implement to do perfect work, and then
altering it to diminish the power required to work it, ought to be
attended to here more than it has ever been before ; for Mr. Pusey's
experiments have shown how small a portion of the draught is due to
the friction of the earth against the mould-board, and how large a por-
tion is occasioned by the weight of the plough as it runs along the bottom
of the furrow. If, then, v^-e can make a mould-board which answers all our
expectations, in the way of the excellence of the work it performs, care
should be taken, in altering its form, merely to diminish the force re-
quired to work it ; for by so doing we can at best make but a slight
variation in that which is but a small portion of the draught. With
regard to the position of the mould-board, it should not encroach on the
cutting parts of the plough. The furrows-slice should be perfectly cut
before any attempt is made to raise and turn it into its ultimate position.

* There is another and very simple M^ay of altering the depth to which
the plough runs ; and this is by changing the position of the back-band. It
M'ill be seen that by the action of this part of the harness a portion of the
draught is thrown on the back of the horse, and only a portion of it remains
on its shoulders. By shifting the back-band nearer to the plough, we increase
the ascent of the line of draught, and of course tend to raise the point of the
plough, make it work shallower ; and by placing it nearer the shoulders of
the animal, the plough is allowed to go deeper.

Oil Agricultural Mechanics. 115

I do not know what portion of the draught of the plough is due to the
mere cutting of the furrow- slice; but it is evident that the tearing and
breaking of the shoe occasioned by the abrupt rise of the mould-board
in many ploughs, before it is properly cut, must greatly increase it.

The mould-board, besides being most gradual in its rise from the
share, must terminate in such a manner that the furrow-slice, even sup-
posing it to be cut of the proper dimensions, shall not merely drop off
it into its ultimate position, but that it shall be pressed into its proper
place.* It should be twisted over so as to incline from the plough at
an angle of 45° where it terminates,

In the construction of the mould-board there are two points to attend
to, the length and the nature of the curve.

Both of these have hitherto been determined merely by experience.
It is, however, evidently a subject capable of mathematical solution.

With regard to the first of them, the mould-board may be divided
into two parts, — first, that between the share and backwards, till by
its action the sod becomes vertical ; and that between this point and
backwards, till the turf by its action assumes its ultimate position. Now,
as the proper length of the mould-board is that Vv^hich receives least
friction in turning the turf, it is obvious ihat the circumstances on which
that length depends vary in the two portions into which the mould-
board is divided.

There are two different descriptions of pressure on the mould-board,
by each of which, of course, friction is produced : that arising from the
mere weight, and that arising from the twist of the turf. It is obvious
that it is the first portion only of the mould-board on which both these
forces act. The hinder part of it cannot be acted on by the weight of
the turf. It is only the force required to twist the turf that will produce
friction on this part of the mould-board ; and here, after the turf has
been forced over to a certain degree, its own weight will tend to twist it,
and so assist the action of the mould-board.

If only the force of torsion in the sod acted on the mould-board, the
more gradual the twist, and the longer the mould-board, the less force
would be exerted to overcome it. The longer, then, the hinder part of
the mould-board is, the less force will be required to overcome the force
which acts on it. The only limit to the length of the hinder part of the
mould-board, then, is that of convenience in the form of the implement.
There is, however, a limit to the length of the first and more important
portion of this part of the plough, which is imposed in another way.
It has been said, that if torsion were the only force acting on it, the
longer the mould-board was made, the more easily would it overcome
this force. There is, however, besides this, the force of gravity acting
on the mass of the furrow lying on the mould-board, and the less the
weight of the turf the more easily, of course, will this be overcome. The
shorter, then, the first part of the mould-board is, according to this
view, the less force will be required to work it, since there will be a less

* This is particularly necessary in ploughing turf, when it is difficult to
bury the sward, unless the mould-board, by a pressure on the upper edge
of the sod, tend perfectly to turn it over.

i2

116 On Ayrlcu/tural Mechanics.

weight of turf lying on it the shorter it is.* There is, then, a pro-
per dimension somewhere between the shortness thus shown to be best
and the length which according to the other view is best, in which, each
kind of force being taken into consideration, the sum of the forces re-
quired to overcome each is a minimum. In order to ascertain this we
require the knowledge of several facts — such as the nature of the twist
of the least friction, the friction of soils of dififerent kinds on iron, and
the force of what may be called anti-torsion in sods of different forms
and kinds of soil. If these were known, the question might be placed
in such a form as would admit of a mathematical solution.

For all practical purposes, I conceive that a sufficiently accurate form
of the mould-board might be obtained by taking a model of the twisted
surface of a turf turned over forcibly into the position into which the
action of a good plough would turn it. If, for instance, a turf of pro-
per dimensions be cut, and left attached at its extremity only to the fast-
land — and if at a distance from this point of fixture, equal to the length
of the proposed mould-board, it be taken hold of and turned over, first
into a vertical position, and then into its ultimate position, 45° beyond
the vertical — it is conceived that the surface which it would present
would be that of a very excellent mould-board; one, at any rate, ap-
proximating to that of least resistance. It is evident that this form
would be very gradual in its rise, and nowhere abrupt in the twist
which it would give to the sod; and it is evident that it would nowhere
be full-breasted.

Before leaving the subject of the plough, a word or two must be said
on the question of wheel and swing ploughs.

It is evident that unless the wheel can be ])roved to be an advantage,
it is a disadvantage, as it increases the complexity of the instrument.

The most that can be said for the wheel is, that on flat ground it
keeps the furrow-slice of uniform depth. Now any irregularity in this
matter must be owing to one of two causes — either to a faulty workman
or to an imperfect arrangement of the draught-chains on the bridle of
the plough : and neither of these thmgs can justly be brought forward
to jus.ify any alteration or addition to the i)lough, for both can be re-
medied without it. If this be the only defence of it where the ground
is dry and fiat, what can be said in its favour where it is irregular and
wet? The wheel cannot diminish the draught of the plough by lessen-
ing the pressure of the implement on the furrow, which has been shown
to be the source of the greater part of the friction. If there were one
wheel behind and another before the plough, they might have this eflTect;
but this would be too great a complication of the implement.

However, in Stirlingshire, they have ploughs which rest not on the
sole-plate, but on a small w4ieel below the mould-board, which is said
to diminish the draught considerably. This, however, where the land
is wet, soon clogs, and it thus increases the draught. The remark made
by a practical man on the subject, when the Norfolk wheel-plough was

* In the Report, however, of the Judges of Implements at Liverpool,
Appendix uf Part VII., it will be seen that, of the ploughs tried there, tnose
which had wheels were almost invariably the lightest m draught. — W. Miles.

On Agricultural Mechanics. 117

brought into Berwickshire, is very applicahle : — " I believe it is not
found universally applicable in grounds containing irregularities of sur-
face and numerous stones, both of which are apt to force it, by encoun-
tering the wheels, from its proper direction. Besides, I am apt to be-
lieve that the chief use of the wheels, in favourable soils, is to relieve
the ploughman from attention and labour, by adding considerably to the
draught of the horses.'*

4. The Harrow.

In describing this implement I shall follow the rule I have
already imposed on myself, first considering its object and use,
and then pointing out what form best answers the purpose in-
tended.

The barrow is required not merely to break the surface clods
of rough ploughed land, nor to gather weeds out of it, but a great
part of its value also depends on its power of loosening the sur-
face of the soil, and thus allowing the air access to the roots of
the plants growing on it, and to the manure lying in it. This is
evidently the case from the advantage, frequently most marked,
that attends the use of this implement, in spring, over young
wheat or corn of any kind. A harrowing in such a case, which
would appear most likely to destroy the young plants, is found to
cause them to sprout and shoot out with increased vigour. This
is especially the case on those soils which are termed sleepy, from
their tendency to run together after rain, and thus to form a sur-
face almost impervious to air. The harrow is used for three pur-
poses, — first, to break the surface- clods, and reduce the surface
of ploughed land; secondly, to gather together and shake out the
weeds that are in the soil ; thirdly, to cover the seed.

For the last purpose a lighter implement is used than for the
former, and the teeth are nearer together.

The common form of the harrow, it is evident, is not a good form ; the
teeth are closest together in the front part of the implement, and the dis-
tance between them widens towards the end of the machine. Now, if
it be used to reduce a rough surface — if there is to be any irregularity
in the distance of the teeth — they should be nearer towards the back
part of the machine ; for the clods of earth will be partially broken by
the front teeth, and will thus be more efficiently acted on by those be-
hind. It is evidently incorrect to have the teeth closest where the earth
is roughest, and farthest apart where it is finest.

The best form of the harrow is the rhomboidal, with the teeth at equal
distance throughout. A pair, when hinged together, gives sufficient
work for a pair of horses. It is this form alone which ensures that all
the teeth shall work in different paths, and that thus the whole of the
ground shall be uniformly stirred and broken: a consideration of the
annexed figure will make this appear.

118

On Affrictiltural Meclianics.

[Rliomboiiial Harrows.]

In many districts the harrow is used not merely to reduce the sur-
face of ploughed land by tearing down the lip of the furrow, but to stir
and lift the furrow-slice to its whole depth. This is not the proper
office of the harrow ; it should be done by the grubber. The use of
heavy drags for this purpose, and the application of great power to work
them (I have frequently seen teams of six and eight oxen drawing a
single heavy harrow or drag), cannot be economical ; it v/ould be much
cheaper to use an implement for the purpose manageable by two horses.
The grubber, or cultivator, presently to be described, is such an imple-
ment.

Though, liowever, the harrow should not be employed to stir the
whole depth of the furrow, it should stir it ■perfectly to the depth to
v/hich it goes, and for this purpose it is well to give the teeth a slight
inclination forwards, that they may have a sufficient hold of the ground.
Their length should be just the depth to which they are intended to go
(4 or 5 inches is sufficiently long), and they should not be fastened in
by being riveted into a plate of iron screwed on to the beams of the
harrows; but they should be slightly of a wedge-shape, that, whenever
they get loose, they may be fixed by merely driving them in with a
hammer. The tines should, for this purpose, project somewhat above
the beam or spar through which they pass ; and thus, when the work-
ing part becomes worn, it may be lengthened by driving them far-
ther in.

There is another advantage in having the tines of the harrow short:
the surface of the land is much more perfectly reduced by it when the
frame-work actually lies and rubs along the ground, than when it rests
on twenty or thirty long tines, as it does in the long-toothed drags.
The implement thus combines the properties both of a roller and a
harrow.

The rhomboidal form of the harrows, which ensures that the teeth
shall all proceed in different paths, is the best form for all the three
purposes to which the implement is applied. It is best for reducing a
rough surface, for gathering and shaking out weeds, and it is best for
covering the seeds. For the latter purpose a lighter harrow with a
greater number of teeth may be used, for the land is generally reduced

On Agricultural Mechanics. 119

to a good tilth before the seed is sown; and the implement has not to
contend with any irregularity or roughness in the surface.

There is one other point to be attended to in the construction of this
implement ; and that is, the joint or mode of connection between the two
portions of which it is composed. This joint should be such as to allow
of free and irregular motion in the two parts of the implement; at the
same time that it effectually hinders any chance of the one part becom-
ing interlocked with or riding, as it is termed, on the other. The
above figure represents a good description of joint; it allows of great
irregularity in the motion of the implement ; while the double joint in
the middle, with the chain at either end, hinders every chance of the
one part becoming interlocked with the other.

5. The Grubber or Scarifier.

The next implement we have to consider is the grubber or
cultivator. The action of this is somewhat similar in principle to
that of the harrow^ but it is much more perfect. Land is fre-
quently worked with this implement without the use of the plough
at all; and this perhaps is the most efficient way of cultivatirg
land off which turnips have been eaten, and preparing it for the
barley-seed. The manure left on the ground by the sheep thus
still remains near the surface ; it is not buried at the depth to
which it would be turned over^ had the land been cultivated by
the plough as deep as it is by the grubber. There is no imple-
ment whose action leaves the ground in such a healihy state as
this. The teeth tend to clear off weeds, and at the same time to
lift and loosen the soil in the most perfect manner.

The first grubber of any note, though before that there had been many
an implement of the kind employed, was Finlayson's. It consists of a
frame-work which is supported by three wheels, one in front and two be-
hind. In this frame-work there are two rows of teeth ; the hindmost row
has one more than the front row; and the front teeth are placed opposite
the centres of the spaces between those behind them. The consequence
of this is, that, while the distance between two teeth in any one of the
rows is 1 foot, yet the distance between any two adjacent paths of the
teeth through the ground is only 6 inches, for the paths of the front teeth
lie between those of those behind. The frame ^s raised or lowered by
means of a lever, which acts on the projecting-bar or crank by which the
front wheel is attached to the frame, and gives it a less or a greater degree
of inclination ; thus letting the machine into the ground or raising it out.
This lever is managed by the driver behind the machine. There is,
however, no simple means of raising the back part of this machine. It
is necessary to fix on the depth you are to work it before you commence
w^ork in the day, and set the implement accordingly. The means of
doing this consists of a pierced vertical bar which connects the frame-
work with each of the wheels, and to which the frame-work is attached
by means of a pin. If it be too high, the pin must be lowered; and
vies versa.

120

On A[)r'icul lured Mechanics.

The characteristic feature of this implement, however, is the form of
its teeth (see annexed figure). This form is calculated to hinder

S§H>

[Finlaysoirs Patent Harrow.]

clogging. Earth full of couch or other weeds coming against it will not
stop there, but will rise over the tooth, and fall down on either side, the
earth below and the weeds above, on the surface of the land. 'J'he faults
of this machine are three : 1st. The wheels are always made too small,
and the frame is too near the ground, so that in working rough land
this clogging takes place in spite of the excellent form of the teeth.
2ndly. The clogging takes place also from another cause. It will be
seen that the distance between any two adjacent teeth, according to the
arrangement in this machine, is only double of the distance between the
paths of the teeth — only 1 foot. Rough, cloddy, and couchy ground will
thus soon stop the machine. This may be remedied by a different
arrangement, as that in the annexed figure for instance, where the dis-
tance between any two teeth is four times that of the space between any
two adjacent paths of the teeth in the ground. Srdly. There are no
simple means of lifting the machine wholly out of the ground : the front
part may be raised, but the hind part remains.

Kirkwood's grubber, an improvement on Finlayson's, was intended to
remedy some of these faults. For the third one he had a very neat
remedy, which is best understood by the drawing which represents the
frame-work in two different portions, depending on the degree to which
the handles are depressed. (See p. 98, Low's ' Practical Agriculture.')
It wdll be seen that the frame-work is lifted partially out of the ground
by this means, both ends being raised at once by depressing the handle.
In this machine the 2nd fault is also remedied by an arrangement of the
teeth, such as that represented in the annexed figure. It wuU be seen
that the distance between any two teeth is much more than twice the

On Agrlcidtiiral Mechanics. 1*21

distance between the paths of the teeth through the ground. Kirkwood,
however, abandoned Finlayson's form of the toothy and substituted one
such as that represented in page 123 ; and in his machine the first fault
of Finlayson's grubber remains in full force, — the frame-work is too near
the ground.

Biddell's scarifier is another implement of this class, much stronger
and more clumsy : the frame-work* is similar in form to Finlayson's, the
teeth as before being arranged in two rows right across the direction of
the path of the machine. It is supported on two large wheels behind,
and two small ones in front, by which it is raised 20 inches oft" the
ground, much higher than in Finlayson's. There is, above the machine,
a complicated apparatus for lifting it out of the ground. The front
part is raised by one lever, and the hinder part by another. The form
of the tnoth has nothing to recommend it : it is necessarily strong and is
attached to the frame-work by bolts : to this tooth either a chisel- edge or
a duck-foot may be attached ; the one being intended to stir the ground
merely, and the other to pare its surface. This machine, from its height
oft" the ground and its great strength, is well calculated to work very
rough and conchy land. If, however, the ground is damp when the
paring-teeth are used, it is impossible to work it, as it immediately clogs.
The whole of the machine is of cast-iron, and the teeth are therefore
liable to break in stony ground. Four horses are required to work this
machine; it is made nine teeth wide = 4 feet 6 inches j five teeth in
the back row and four in the front.

Another implement, a very great improvement on Finlayson's harrow,
has been put forth by Scoular of Haddington, who supplies them there
at 7/. each. The form of the frame-work, the form of the teeth, the
arrangement of the teeth, and the height of the frame-work, ar ehowever
the same, still faulty. The improvement consists in a simple means of
raising or lowering the frame-work altogether, and of keeping it at any
one depth. It will be understood from the annexed figures, which give
a side-view and a ground -plan. It is much simpler than Kirkwood's,
and possesses, by means of the notched upright, a very simple method
of keeping the machine at one depth ; the lever or handle by which it is
raised is merely fixed in one of these notches : this is effected in Kirk-
wood's grubber in a complicated manner. Finlayson's, Kirkwood's,
and Scoular's are wholly wrought-iron, except, of course, the wheels.
Now taking Scoular's as the best of the four for general purposes — and
here I may say, that having only five teeth, and working a width of
3 feet, it is perfectly manageable by two horses — if we first take Scoular's
machine and point out all its faults, we shall see how these have been
remedied in a machine, the invention of the managers of Lord Ducie's
Iron- Works at Uley, in Gloucestershire.

1st. The wheels are too small; the frame- work is greatly too near to
the ground.

2nd. The teeth, being in two rows right across the path of the
machine, are only twice the distance from one another that exists be-
tween any two adjacent paths or ruts made by them in the ground,

* See Journal, vol. i., p. 357.

122

Gn jiijn' cultural Mechanics.

3rd. The teeth being in two rows, there is necessarily a tendency in
the bars to which they are fixed to twist, for theie is not the strain of
one only, but of three teeth, all acting on one bar, tending to twist it.

4th. The teeth, though of a good form with regard to their general
figure, are not good, if we judge of their strength by their section. This
is broader than it is thick ; whereas, to stand the great strain placed on
them when at work, it should be much thicker than wide. This fault
occasions, when the machine is at work, an almost constant recurrence
to the smith's shop, the teeth becoming bent.

5th. The whole machine, being of wrought-iron, is expensive,

6th. Although the mode in whicli the implement is raised out of the
ground answers the purpose perfectly, and is beautifully simple, yet it
is difficult to manage. It is as much as a man can do to lift it out of
the ground at the end of the field, when it is at work. And the difficulty
is due in part to this circumstance : it will be observed that the cranks
by which the hind wheels and front wheels are attached to the machine
all lie behind their points of attachment, — they incline from the horses.
Now, in consequence of this, in raising the machine, it is evidently by
the action of the lever pulled towards the driver — pulled backwards,
and thus in lifting it out of the ground the man has not only the mere
weight of the im])lement to lift, but he has to overcome the whole force
of the horses which pull it forward, and thus tend to keep it in the
ground. These points, then, require alteration, and at the same. time
an implement was required which should be as efficient and as easily
drawn.

With regard to the first point, the Uley Cultivator rests on four
wheels; the front ones being 18 inches in diameter, and the hind ones
3 feet 4 inches in diameter. From the front ones rises an iron rod, having
a circular section which passes through the point or nose of the frame-
work ; the hindmost ones rest on cranks on an axle which runs straight
through the frame-work : the frame-work is thus 20 inches off the ground.

2nd. The teeth are not placed in rows, but are arranged as in the
annexed figure (p. 16), and somewhat similar to the arrangement in

[Lord Ducie's Cultivator.]

Kirkwood's grubber. The space between each is thus 2 feet — tvvic:
that of Secular's — while the distance between the paths of each is only

On Agricultural Mechanics. 123

6 inches, the same as in Scoular's. On the points of these teeth, either
chisel-shaped or duck-foot or triangular edges for paring are slipped,
the form of the tooth on which they slip being such as to hinder these
teeth from slipping round. This, with the form of the teeth, is repre-
sented in the figure; the teeth for paring are much more pointed

Kirkwood's. Finlayson's. Biddell's. Uley Cultivator.

than those of Biddell's, with which they are compared in the annexed
figure. The implement has been tried for paring as well as for stirring,
and is found to move the whole surface of the ground most perfectly.

3rd. The frame-work does not, as in Finlayson's harrow, consist of a
series of cross-bars, into two of which the teeth are fixed in two rows,
but it is as in the annexed figure; each tooth having its own bar, to
W'hich it is affixed, and not being attached in a direction across the bar,
but in the direction of its length, so that any strain on it cannot tend to
twist it.

4th. The tooth is not of the same form as Finlayson's, but it has, as
Finlayson's, a self-cleaning form. This will be understood from the figure
of it given above. It will be seen that the rise for the first five inches
is most gradual, and that any conchy earth or clods coming against it
will not be stopped by it and clog it, but will rise and tumble over, and
fall aside, and so pass by. This, with the height of the frame mentioned
in No. 1, and the distance between the teeth, spoken of in No. 2, hinders
any possibility of the machine being clogged in fast-land.

5th. The machine is partly cast-iron and partly wrought ; and thus
while the liability of Biddell's to break is avoided, the advantage of
having the cheapness of cast-metal is partly ensured. The sections of the
teeth, given in a figure above, show that they are strong enough. Their
strength is increased by having an abutment on the frame, against
which they rest. The manner in which they are fixed to the frame is
also such as to increase their strength. Ihey are made slightly taper
at the place where they are keyed in, so that a blow of the hammer
makes them fit perfectly accurately to the frame. They are not fixed by
wedges, as the coulter of a plough, but by a key which passes through
the frame, through both the mortice and tenon, and thus holds them fast.

6th. The mode in which it is raised out of the ground, and the plan
by which its depth is regulated, is an invention of Mr. Clyburn, of
Uley Works. The ease by which the operation is performed is greater,
and the complication of Biddell's scarifier is avoided, while the regularity
and parallelism of the motion of the frame-work, as it is raised or
lowered, is as perfect as in Scoular's or Kirkwood's.

The hinder part of the machine is, as in Scoular's implement, raised
by increasing the inclination of the cranks which attach the hind-wheels

124 On J (jrkultnral Mechanics.

to the frame. In this, however, instead of inclining backwards, and thus
requiring, on lifting the machine, an exertion of force, as we before ex-
plained, against the whole pull of the horses, the crank is thrown for-
ward in exactly the other way; and thus the whole force of the horses,
instead of being exerted against the effort of the driver to raise the
implement out of the ground, is actually exerted in assi^ting him to
do so.

The front part of the machine is not raised in the same way as the
hinder part, by a crank on the front wheel, but it slips up and down the
vertical pole attached to them, and is raised in the following way : the
cranks of the hinder wheels are attached to an axle, which passes
through the frame, and thus supports it. On this axle a toothed wheel
is fixed : this toothed wheel is worked by an endless screw on a shaft,
which also works in the frame of the machine. This shaft working by
means of this endless screw, a toothed wheel on the axle across the imple-
ment is necessarily parallel to the length of the machine, and is turned
by means of a crank- handle above. Turning this handle round in one
direction, it is evident that the axle on which the toothed wheel is fixed
will be turned round, and the crank of the hind wheels raised, and thus
the frame brought nearer the surface of the ground, the teeth let deeper
into it; by turning the handle the other way, the hind part of the
machine is raised.

In order to get the front part of the machine raised and lowered ex-
actly as the hinder part of it, the following simple method is adopted :
on the axle of the hinder wheels a crank is fixed, attached for greater
simplicity to the pinion before mentioned. It is the same length as the
crank of the hind wheels; when, therefore, the pinion is turned round,
these wheels being by this crank raised, that is, the frame being lowered,
say 2 inches, the extremity of this crank is lowered 4 inches.* From the
crank a vertical rod rises, which is attached to one end of a lever rest-
ing at the other end on the vertical rod at the front of the machine, and
attached exactly at the middle by means of a rod of iron to the frame-
work of the implement. When, therefore, the point of the crank is
lowered 4 inches, the hindmost extremity of the lever is also lowered
4 inches, and, as it rests on the top of the vertical rod at the other end,
it depresses the rod in the middle and the frame-work attached to it
exactly 2 inches, the same as the hind part of it. The perfect parallelism
of its motion is thus ensured, while the mode of lifting it requires but a
small exertion of force. The implement is altogether about 6 cwt. in
weight. It is supplied at Uley at prices varying according to the size,
weight, &c. at which it is ordered, certain forms of the implement being
intended for two horses and others for four. Before leaving this subject
I wish to say a word which might perhaps have been more properly
placed in the account of the plough.

The looseness in which the use of this implement leaves the land is,
in every case, except when dry weather is anticipated, the most advan-
tageous for the germination of the seed or the growth of the plant.

* Two inches by the action of the crank, and other^'2 inches by the
lowering of the frame to which the crank is attached.

On Agricultural Mechanics. 125

It has been customary to trample and roll, and by every means firm
the land after wheat-sowing, to hinder the frost from throwing the young
plants out. On this account, when my father stated his intention to a
party of farmers who were walking over Whitfield Example farm, of sowing
wheat on a field which had been subsoil-ploughed in the spring, and had
borne an excellent crop of swedes, and which was then, after having been
cultivated with Secular's implement, in as loose a state as possible, they
tried to dissuade him, and foretold that the young plants would, on the
first frost, be thrown out. The plants certainly sustained some severe
frosts, but the result showed the fears expressed to have been unfounded.
The Norfolk farmers, I believe, are very careful, in ploughing for wheat,
to break the furrow-slice as little as possible, and to firm the land as
much as possible, before sowing their wheat. They find that this tends
to hinder the frost from throwing out the plant. May not this throwing
out by the frost, upon wet land at least, be explained in this way ? The
rain falls on such land, and sinks in till it comes to an impervious bot-
tom, at no great depth, where the land has never been stirred by the
plough or otherwise. It remains there, and, on freezing in winter, it of
course forces open the land, and the plants are thrown out and killed.
There are two ways of hindering this : one is to trample and roll the
land, and make a hard surface, so that the rain, on falling, flows over
the surface and is carried away by the open furrows. It thus does not
sink in. This is the plan generally followed, but it often fails, as I be-
lieve the experience of many would testify. Would not the better plan
be to drain the land and put in the subsoil-plough and work it with the
scarifier? The rain, on falling, will certainly sink in, but it will sink
far beyond the reach of the frost, and will be carried away by the drains,
the plants at the same time deriving all the advantages of a free and
open soil.

[To he continued.']

XI. — On the ^' Tchornoi Zem,^' or Black Earth of the Central
Regions of Russia. By Roderick Impey Murchison,
F.R.S., President of the Geological Society.

[Since the accompanying sketch was read before the Geological Society
of Londjn, I have added to it the valuable analysis of the black earth by
M. Payen, and have willmgly acceded to the request of my friend Mr. Pusey
to publish it in the volumes of the Agricultural Society.]

In previous communications respecting the geological structure of
Russia in Europe, M. de Verneuil and myself gave a sketch of
the superficial accumulations which are apparent in the northern
governments of that empire. In conjunction with our associate.
Count Keyserling, we shall revert to this subject, both with the
view of adding to our former stock of knowledge that which has
resulted from recent researches, and also to show in one con-
nected memoir the relations of all the varied superficial demtus

126 On the Tchornoi Zem,

of Russia. The object, in the mean time, of this short notice is
to call attention to a superficial deposit which occurs at intervals
over enormous tracts in central and eastern Russia, and which,
from the uniformity of its colour and composition, is without
parallel in Europe. Though Pallas and the older writers upon
Russia have briefly noticed the occurrence of a black vegetable
mould, they have neither described the extent of ground occupied
by it, nor its composition ; still less have they speculated upon
its probable origin. The Baron A. Von Meyendorf, my com-
panion in a part of my first journey, in a letter to M. Elie de
-Beaumont, has indeed spoken of this material as being one of the
chief sources of the agricultural wealth of the empire.

Having recently, however, had the opportunity, in company
with M. de Verneuil and Count A. Keyserling, of tracing the
relations of this black earth over wider tracts than perhaps any
modern observer, I have thrown together a few remarks which
may serve to explain, 1st, the range and extent of the deposit, and
its relations to the physical features of the land ; 2ndly, its agri-
cultural properties; 3rdly, its chemical composition; 4thly, the
theory of its origin.

1 . The black earth has its northernmost limit defined by a waving
line which, passing from near Kief and Tchernigof, a little to the
south of Lichwin, appears in the 54° of N. lat. in that tract, then
advances in its course eastward to the 57° of N. lat. and occupies
the left bank of the Volga west of Tcheboksar, between Nijny
Novogorod and Kasan. In approaching the Ural chain, we saw
no black earth to the north of Kasan, but we observed it plentifully
on the Kama and around Ufa. Again, on the Asiatic or Siberian
side of the Ural mountains we travelled through one large oasis
of it near Kamensk, south of the Issetz river in latitude 56° N.,
and through another, between Miask and Sviask. Of its limits
in the great Siberian plains we cannot speak from personal
observation, but v/e were given to understand that it spreads
over a considerable area in the eastern and central parts of that
region. Nor can we exactly define its southern limits in these
eastern longitudes, for although we met with it occasionally in
the gorges of the chain and in the Baschkir country on both
flanks of the southern Ural, and also in the steppes of the
Kirghis, \Ye cannot pretend to say if it extends far to the south
of Orenburg. We know, however, that it is not to be seen
in the flat southern steppes between that place and the mouth
of the Volga which were traversed by us ; for there the sur-
face is strewed with fine submarine detritus containing nume-
rous shells of the same species as those which now inhabit the
adjacent Caspian. Nor have we seen any black earth to the
south of Tzaritzin on the Volga, or on the steppes of the Kal-

or Blade Earth of Russia . 127

mucks between that place and the mouth of the Don ; nor
indeed anywhere except in very limited patches along the sea
of Azof, or in other words on the southern face of the axis of
elevation between the Dnieper and the Don, which is a pro-
longation of the Carpathian chain, and constitutes what is com-
monly called the granitic Steppe. It occurs, however, in great
thickness on the slopes and plateaux on the northern side of that
axis, where, as it really surmounts the carboniferous limestone
with many seams of coal, a geologist who had not observed it in
other places might at first sight be led to suppose that the black
matter was due to the decomposition of the subjacent carbonaceous
strata.'" It lies, however, upon rocks of all ages, and the great
masses are included in the central region thus roughly defined.
Geologically considered, therefore, the Tchornoi Zem occupies
the centre of a great trough as large as an European empire,
having the detritus of the crystalline and older rocks for its
northern and the low granitic steppes for its southern limits.

It is found at all levels, sometimes on plateaux, as on the right
bank of the Volga, high above the adjacent plains, in various paral-
lels, from 56J-° N. lat. to the high grounds extending to Saratof,
and at heights of not less than 400 feet above the valleys ; in other
places on slopes and undulations, and often in broad valleys, where
the rivers, having cut through the deposit, expose its thickness on
their banks. In the country where the southern limits of the
northern drift are traceable, it is interesting to observe that its
materials, reduced to small size, are overlapped by the black
earth.

I may here remark, that on the plateaux and their sides, the
black earth, like all the other alluvia of Russia, is constantly cut
into by the ravines, called '•' avrachs " or '" baltas " by the Russians,
and which invariably show it to be the uppermost deposit. These
ravines have been mentioned in a former communication ; but the
attention of English geologists cannot be too frequently called to
them, as the rapidity with which they are laid open after the
ground has once begun to yawn, is something quite surprising
to those who have been accustomed only to survey the trodden
tracts of Europe and other parts of the world.

Central Russia, indeed, may be described as consisting, to a
very great extent, of a series of undulations, composed of incohe-
rent materials, or, in other words, as a country so devoid of a
visible skeleton or framework, that the vast increment of clay,
sand, or mud, which occupies her surface, is easily denuded when

* These coal-fields have since been described in the account of the gene-
ral structure of central and southern Russia, communicated by myself and
companions to th« Geological Society of London.

128 On the Tchonioi Zem,

any adequate cause is brou^rht into play. The opening or fissuring
of these masses, then, is due, in the first place, to an extreme
climate, which subjects the surface to intense and long droughts,
alternating with heavy debacles, arising from the melting of thick
coverings of snow and ice. During the hot and parching summers
the argillaceous grounds necessarily split into rents, and wherever
these occur upon slopes, the thaw of the succeeding spring libe-
rating vast bodies of snow and water, the smallest crack of the
previous year is enlarged mto a gulley, which, widening as it
descends, becomes in a few seasons a broad and deep ravine,
through which the masses of melted snow, mud, sand, and clay
are transported into the adjacent river. It is the conjunction,
therefore, of the very incoherent nature of the upper deposits of
Russia with the extremes of her climate which explains the form-
ation of the innumerable ravines that fissure her surface. It
would indeed be a curious problem to ascertain to what extent
these ravines encroach annually upon the best arable and pasture
grounds of the empire, and in what progression this waste
takes place; as proved by the rapidly increasing deltas at the
mouths of the Volga, Don, &c., and by the very perceptible
silting up of the Sea of Azof. In no instance have I seen any
means adopted to check this continual wear and tear, by which
millions of tons of the richest soils are annually destroyed, and
transported away by the great rivers. In the mean time, the
geologist has to thank these *' avrachs " for most of his best sec-
tions, for it is generally near their mouths, where the denudation
has been deepest, that the parent- rock or true subsoil is laid bare.
I may here also state, that it is owing to the ravined nature of the
sides of the hills, and the wide mouths of these gullies, that the
great roads of Russia pass almost invariably over the highest
table-lands, where the "avrachs" are, comparatively speaking,
absent. Instead of travelling along the banks of the great water-
courses, as we might think would be the case by an inspection of
a physical map, it has been found impossible to maintain roads
along these lower levels, — first, from their being inundated during
certain seasons ; and, secondly, by the innumerable mouths of
the ravines, which defy all the efforts of bridge-makers, aud are
for ever changing their courses and dimensions.

Returning, however, from this allusion to a phenomenon which
affects all the incoherent deposits of Russia, to our special subject,
it must be clearly understood, that the black soil of which we are
treating does not, by any means, occupy all the vast country in
question. It occurs, indeed, in areas sometimes consisting of
sev^eral large parishes, and is invariably the superior deposit,
covering all other accumulations of clay, sand, 6cc. In thickness
it \anes from a few feet to 15 or 1:0 feet. In travelling over

or Black Earth of Russia. 129

these black tracts in the dry summer of last year, my companions
and myself were often, during a whole day, more or less sur-
rounded by a cloud of black dust arising from the dried up
" Tchornoi Zem," which, even in rich grass countries, like those
east of Odoyef, is of so subtle a nature as to rise up through the
sod, under the stamp of the horse's feet, and form so dense a
cloud, that on arriving at our station we were often amused at
our chimney-sweep appearance.*

'2. The " Tchornoi Zem" is unquestionably the finest soil in
Russia, whether for the production of wheat or grass. It is so
fertile as arable land, that the farmers never apply manure ; and,
after taking many crops in succession, leave it fallow for a year
or two, and then resume their scourging treatment. The natural
productiveness of this soil has doubtless tended to confirm the
prejudices of the peasants of Central Russia against the use of
manure, enormous piles of which, the accumulation of ages, are
seen behind most villages and towns, forming, between the houses
and the river below them, hillocks of considerable magnitude, the
export of which might really prove a very beneficial trade to those
countries more advanced in agriculture, and whose poorer soils
are worthless without repeated dressings of manure. In the mean
time, however, it is right to state that well-educated Russian pro-
prietors of such lands in Central Russia are now labouring hard
to overcome the ignorance of their peasants, and have in some
instances succeeded in inducing them to manure their fields;
whilst in the northern governments, where the soil and climate
are more adverse to the cultivator, improved agricultural habits
are becoming prevalent, and in all the military and German
colonies manure is regularly harrowed in, the culture being occa-
sionally as clean as in some parts of Western Europe.

In the central southern regions I may particularly cite M. Da-
vidof, an extensive proprietor of black earth in the rich tract
between Stavropol and Sysran, as one of the most spirited
modern agriculturists. Educated in Scotland, where he acquired

* Although it has been said that this black earth is unlike any superficial
deposit in Europe, it is probable that the fine black earth of Hungary is
merely a western limb of the great Russian accumulation. The " Tchornoi
Zem " is indeed somewhat analogous in colour, uniformity of deposit, and fer-
tilizing properties, to the " Regur " or cotton soil of the central (Deccan) and
southern (Trichinopoly, &c.) districts of Hiudostan. In a memoir com-
municated to the Royal Society, in 1837, by Lieut. Newbold, of the Madras
Army, that otficer describes this Indian humus as being spread out in patches
over wide tracts, and at all levels, and it is supposed by him to have been
formed under water. In aspect, however, as well as in composition, the " Re-
gur " differs from the " Tchornoi Zem " in not being so black, in containing
much coarser grains of sand, and also calcareous (tufaceous) concretions,
which are attributed by Mr. Newbold to springs rising from the subjacent
rocks.

VOL. III. K

130 On the Tchornoi Ztm,

a taste for good farming, he is endeavouring, with the aid of his
very intelligent agent, M. Brummer, and by the example of
model farms, to lead the people to use manure and eat potatoes,
a root generally al^horred by the Russian peasant. Turnips or
other green rotation crops being also unknown in the interior of
Russia, I have little doubt that, with an improved system like
that proposed and put in practice by M. Davidof^ the agricul-
tural products of Russia might be doubled.

It is not in my power to give an exact return of the crop yielded
by the black earth, nor can I refer my readers to Schnitzler's
Statistics of Russia, without cautioning them against what I presume
to be an error, when that author states, that in good seasons this
black ground, in the government of Tambof, returns from 10
to 15 for 1, and in other years from 7 to 10 for 1.* With a
knowledge of the treatment which this soil undergoes, such esti-
mates must be overcharged, if viewed as average returns. More
recentlv, indeed, the Baron A. von Meyendorf has prepared an
useful statistical map, not yet published, in which the whole of
Russia in Europe is divided into three regions — of forest, corn,
and steppe. lie also states that the agricultural region affords
20,000,000 of hectares of wheat ; but I may observe, that the
amount of this quantity which proceeds from the black earth
cannot be known until its limits are defined. Nor would it have
given a fair idea of the productiveness of this soil to have simply
noted down the returns at this or that spot, where the plough had
been long at work, and no manure used. The true test would
be to show the amount of produce when the black earth is first
changed from a state of steppe or grass to an arable condition.
Eager as the Russian cultivator is to convert such lands, there are
still very wide tracts of Southern and Eastern Russia, and on the
flanks of the South Ural, where no plough has yet broken in
upon this fine virgin soil, and where it still is loaded with the
richest crops of grass.

3. Chemical composition. On fracturing a hardened lump

* The mode of computing the fertility of a soil by the return from a given
quantity of seed, which is commonly used by foreign writers, is very falla-
cious, as it depends, in a great measure, on the quantity of seed sown on a
given space. If a sack of wheat be sown broadcast on an acre of land, and
the return be 5 quarters, this will be only 10 for 1 ; but if o pecks be dib-
bled, and 5 quarters reaped, v.'hich is not uncommon, the return is no less
than 32 for ] : yet the fertility of the soil is not in that proportion. In the
rich black earth a smaller quantity of seed is required ; and, supposing 3
bushels sown per acre, an increase of 15 for 1 would only give 4 5 bushels —
no very extraordinary crop for such land, in a climate peculiarly suited to
the growth of wheat; and 10 for 1 would only be 30 bushels per acre — no
very great average. There may, therefore, be no error in the statement of
the return of the black soil of Tambof.— W, L. Rham.

or Black Earth of Russia. 131

which I extracted six months ago from beneath 10 to 12 feet of
subjacent similar earth, all jet black when moist, and which I had
kneaded together to bring away, it offered in its dry state a slightly
ferruginous brown tint ; and I further perceived that besides the
black matrix, grains of lighter-coloured sand were interspersed.
Having submitted a portion of this mass to Mr. R. Phillips, the
Chemist of the Museum of Economic Geology, he has obligingly
furnished me with this analysis: —

Silica . . . .69-8

Alumina . . . .13*5

Lime . . . .1-6

Oxide of iron . . .7

Vegetable matter . . .6*4

Traces of humic acid, sulphuric acid, chlorine, &c. 1 '7

100
Dr. Daubeny, who has also interested himself in the examination
of this black erirth, and has detected about the same proportion
of organic matter as that noticed by Mr. Phillips, thus expresses
himself: — '' The possession of a deep soil, easily penetrated by
the roots of plants, and containing so large a per centage of mild
humus, would alone impart great fertility."

The celebrated French agricultural chemist, M. Payen, who
analyzed a portion of this black earth at the request of M, de
Verneuil, says : — ■

" The composition of this earth is remarkable for the propor-
tion of azotised matter which it contains, and the volume of the
azote. The connection between this earth and the organic sub-
stance, when the latter is so rich in azote, appears to me to be
essentially one of the surest indications of the fertility of soil,
other conditions of chemical properties and mineral composition
being favourable. In this respect, and according to my compared
analyses, the earth in question approaches very near to two of the
most fertile soils of France, that of the Limagne d' Auvergne (valley
of the Upper Loire) and that of the neighbourhood of St. Denis,
near Paris, notably in the farms of Marville and Stains. I have
great pleasure in authorising Mr. Murchison to publish this
analysis and the opinion I here express, and shall be much ho-
noured if these details find a place in the Memoir of the Presi-
dent of the Geological Society of London."

ANALYSTS OF THE BLACK EARTH BY M. PAYEN.

iro f f fi"05 Combustible organic matter rAlumine

, P^I^ { 93 • 05 Incombustible j Soluble in ] Oxide of iron

ot earth j matter = { boiling hydro- 13-755 1 Lime . .

[ chloric acid J ] Magnesia . .

Alkaline \
Chlorides)

k2

5-04
5-62

• S2
0-98

1-21

132 On the Tchornoi Zt

fSUica . . . 71-56

Insoluble in boil- ] I Alumina . . C"36

iiig hydrochloric >79' 30 j Lime (traces ofj

acid J I Magnesia . . O'2-l

or according to the quantities J Earth. Org. matter. Incombustible. 10*237 soluble.

used in the analysis^ tl-724= 0- 119 -f 1-605 j 1-368 insoluble.

After detailing the minute proportions of these soluble and insoluble contents, M.
Payen adds, that the analysis of the combustible organic matter indicated the presence
in 100 parts of the original earth, of . Water 4- 81

Azote 2-45

7-26
4- 140 grammes of the earth yielding 9* 498 cuhic centimetres of azotic gas. *

In order to avoid error, not pretending myself to be acquainted
with the method of analysis employed by M. Payen^ I here refer
my readers to the original document, j

* If we only consider the diemical elements of which this black earth,
which is stated to be so fertile, is composed, the analysis does not afford us
much information, without a knowledge of its mechanical texture. The
same elementary substances may be so variously combined as to produce
very different soils in respect to fertility. Thus, if 70 per cent, of silica
were in the form of small crystals, such as we find in sea-sand, and the
13 per cent, of alumina combined with the 7 per cent, of iron and the sul-
phuric acid were mechanically mixed with the sand, the result would be a
soil not much superior to that of Bagshot Heath ; and although the 6 or 7
per cent, of organic matter, especially with a considerable portion of animal
matter, would give it some fertility, it would never be fit for the growth of
wheat, from a want of firmness. JBut if the alumina is combined with the
silica, so as to form clay, and a portion of the silica only is in the form of
fine sand, making with the clay a loamy soil, and the oxide of iron be a
peroxide not hurtful to vegetation, then the organic matter intimately mixed
with this soil will form the richest wheat-loam. This confirms an opinion I
have ventured to express elsewhere — that, when the silica is in a very high
state of division, and intimately blended with the alumina, it can no longer
be considered as sand ; nor has it the porous quality by which sand is soon
deprived of its moisture, and the organic matter is exhausted in it. This
shows the necessity of a mechanical examination of a soil, which is so easily
effected by sifting and washing alone, conjointly with an accurate chemical
analysis, before we can form a correct opinion of the real fertility of a
soil. — W. L. Rham.

t Analyse de la Terre Noire de Russie, sur un C-chantillon transmis par M. Gourieff.

Analyse.
6 • 95 mat. organique combustible. fAlumine . = 5-04

100 terre —I c< i 1 1 i t n i i Ox. de fer . = 5 '62
no A' 1 /Solubles dans lac. chloihvd. I ^, „ "^

93-Ooceudres .{ , ;ii„.,^ _ lo.^n • < Chaux .= 0-82

Magnesie . = 0*98

Chls. alcals. = 1-21

rSilice . . = 71-56

[nsolubles dausTac. chlorhyd.j Alumine . = 0-36

bouillant = 79-o0 j Chaux (traces).

iMagnesie . = 0-24

Ou d'apres les quantites employees pour I'analyse 1 -721 10- 237 soluble,
terre = 0-119 mat. org. + 1-605 ceudre = . , j 1-308 insoluble.

bouillant s= 13-79

or Black Earth of Russia.

133

Whilst the analyses of these able chemists afford us nearly the
same results as to the proportions of solid materials, we learn
from M. Pay en that the peculiar gaseous contents of the black
earth may be the principal cause of its fertility. It would seem,
indeed, that without a close attention to the proportion, not only
of the soluble and insoluble constituents of soils, but also to their
gaseous contents and their mechanical aggregation, it must be
very difficult to estimate their fertilizing powers. Thus, in looking
through the various British soils analyzed by Mr. R. Phillips, I
find that a red, brick-coloured earth, already alluded to, from a
property of Lord Calthorpe, (as dissimilar as possible in aspect
and aggregation from the Tchornoi Zem of Russia, and differing
also from it, I will venture to say, in produce,) has almost to
minute quantities the same relative proportions of sand, clay, iron,
and vegetable matter ; though the Russian earth is black, perme-
able, and easily managed, and the English earth is red and tena-
cious. Again, we see by the comparisons of M. Payen with
what very different soils in France he compares the Tchornoi
Zem of Russia.

4. When we speculate on the probable origin of the Tchornoi
Zem, the first impression might be that which the Baron A.
von Meyendorf adopted in a letter to M. Elie de Beaumont,
and which is indeed the prevalent opinion in Russia, viz. that it
is the humus arising from decayed forests or vegetables. But I
am obliged to dissent from this opinion, seeing the uniform nature
of the soil and its distribution at all levels without reference to
the existing drainage ; and also from the fact, that in no part of the
empire did my associates or myself ever perceive a trace of trees,
roots, or vegetable fibre in the black mass. It is in vain to say

Mat. soluble dans ac.
chlorbyd, boitillaut =

Alumine ....
Ox. de fer .

Sulfte. chx. = 0-036 1
= cbaux . . .j
Magnesie ....
Chlorures alcals. .

0-237

Per 100.

0-087
0-097

36-70
40-91

0-014

9-90

0-017
10-021

7-17
8-86

Mat. insoluble ac.
chlorbyd. bouillaut =

Sillce .

Alumine

Chaux

Magnesie

1-368 Per 100.

1-232 90-24
0-110 8-03

traces.
0-008 I 0-90

DOSAGE DE L AZOTE.

Donnees.
Mat. employee = 4-110
Pression =

Temperat. =

76-94
19<: c^^
9<^« 9

Mis vide
Perte

9- 190) eau per cent.
0-29Uf = 4-81

A incinerer = 1 - 724 1 cendre per cent.
Cendres(rcuges)= 1-609J =93-09

Restcltais.

Mat. normale employee = '4*140

„ seche = 3-940

,, organique pure = 0-279

Vol. reel, de Fazote = 9c''498

Poids „ = 6i^ e 861

azote { Mat. normale = 1 • 66

„ seche = 1-74

„ pure = 24-99

pour
1000

134 On the Tclwrnoi Zcm,

that such vegetables may have been entirely decomposed ; for in
the deep denudations which expose 15 to 20 feet of this matter,
surely some remains of the forests or bogs would be found in
the lowest parts of the solid earth, just as we find roots and
branches of oak, pine, birch, and hazel in our peat bogs.

But if, for these reasons, it be impossible to adopt the hypothesis
of simple terrestrial origin, and that we consider it a subaqueous
deposit, with what known accumulation shall we compare the
black earth?

Having referred to some of the difficulties which are to be over-
come before the practical farmer can avail himself of the lesson
which is offered to him in the crucible of the chemist, I will
(claiming the forbearance of agriculturists) say a few w^ords on the
geological relations of this Russian earth, and conclude with an
attempt to explain the cause of its colour. With what known
superficial deposit, then, are we to compare it? Is it to be placed
in parallel with the equally finely levigated silt which the Ger-
mans call Loss, or with the upper diluvial mud which in Belgium,
France, and Germany is said to bound the northern drift?
Though this comparison is made by M. A. Erman, and has been
alluded to by the eminent geologist M. E. de Beaumont, I do not
conceive that it can be sustained. With the ordinary diluvial or
drift clay the black earth has, indeed, nothing in common; for it
does not contain a single transported pebble. Besides, it overlaps,
and is never mixed with, that drift which occupies such large
tracts of northern Russia. Again, the composition of the
''Tchornoi Zem" is most distinct from the Loss of Germany,
which light-coloured, sandy, calcareous mass is abundantly filled
with terrestrial and lacustrine shells in perfect preservation,
clearly indicating that it was accumulated on the sides of an-
cient, wide, lacustrine rivers, which were barred up so as to
form lakes in the way described by Mr. Lyell, just before the
present configuration of the land was completed. The fact, also,
that the Loss has not yet been seen on high plateaux, but occu-
pies the sides and bottoms of the great valleys in which rivers
flow, is in itself sufficient to prove that, although it may have been
accumulated at nearly the same epoch, it cannot be considered as
the exact equivalent of the " Tchornoi Zem," which contains no
terrestrial and fluviatile remains, and is found at all levels without
any relation to the existing water-courses.

Debarred, by the absence of any. portions of plants in its com-
position, from referring it to the decay of ancient forests, and
unable to compare it with any known deposit, from the absence of
all organic remains, let us see whether the very peculiar nature of
the physical, geographical, and geological conditions of Russia
may not help us to a solution of the problem.

or Black Earth of Russia. 135

Unlike all great regions hitherto examined^ central Russia is
void of rocks of igneous origin or intrusive character^ and all her
strata deviate from horizontality only by the slightest undulations.
From this fact and from the incoherent texture of the rocks it is
clear that her subsoil, which on account of its marine contents we
know to have been formed under the sea, must have been raised
and desiccated by very gradual and even movements. Judging
from the evidences of geological succession also^, and seeing that,
without the aid of great fractures or dislocations in the crust of
the earth, some of the older rocks of Russia, such as the moun-
tain limestone, are covered conformably by the inferior oolite,
whilst the lias and, to a great extent, the new red sandstone are
wanting, we see in these facts the proofs that either the former
bottom of the sea was raised above the waters and remained dry
for long periods, or that, in this very tranquil region of the earth's
surface, the absence of all widely-spreading powerful currents
ceased, at intervals, to extend from the neighbouring seas and
rivers. Pursuing this mode of reasoning from the more ancient
phenomena to those which immediately preceded our own era, we
are led by positive evidence to conclude that the whole surface of
central Russia (however parts of it may have had formerly di-
viding barriers) was during that period again depressed beneath
the level of the sea, in which the marine shells of the government
of Archangel and the Southern Steppes were accumulated, and
over which the sand, clavj, pebbles, and blocks of the north, as
we have before described, were deposited.

In all those parts where the strata show no signs of dislocation,
the present physical features of the country, indeed, serve to
explain the outline of the southern edge or extreme range of the
northern drift ; for where high plateaux, like those on the left
bank of the Volga between Nijny Novogorod and Kasan, stand
out with their cliffs to the north, there we trace a well-defined limit
beyond which that drift has not proceeded ; and where, on the
contrary, longitudinal valleys, like that of the Okka, open to the
south, there we perceive that northern blocks have advanced from
50 to 150 miles farther. In no part, however, of the great
northern region occupied by the northern drift is there a trace of
the " Tchornoi Zem," though yellow and white sands and stiff
clays abound, the latter constantly charged with transported
pebbles like our English drift or diluvium.

Extending then as far southwards as currents, icebergs, and
other causes, to which I have formerly referred, would transport
them, and a submarine outline would permit the materials to
advance, it is very natural to suppose that, where the northern
drift ceased to advance, the bottom of the then sea, far removed
from any currents, or unagitated by any disturbing force, would

136 On the Tchormi Zem.

become covered with fine silt or mud, such as we know, from the
soundincrs of hydrographers, is often found beneath mediterranean
waters, far removed from the action of currents.

The absence of any marine shells in this fine sediment is, it is
true, a negative fact, which, if unaccompanied by some explana-
tion, might indispose my readers to admit this hypothesis. We
must, however, bear in mind that, after their emersion, the
central parts of Russia, if but slowly and slightly elevated,
may have long remained in an intermediate state of mire or
slough with little egress for water ; so that the remains of deli-
cate testacea (if they existed) may have been entirely decom-
posed by the alternations of aqueous and atmospheric agency.
But whether we adopt this view or not, we cannot, I repeat, look
at the very great uniformity of its composition over such vast
tracts, and its independence of existing drainage, without rejecting
any theory Avhich would account for the production of the
" Tchornoi Zem " by subaerial causes only, and on these grounds
w^e must, I think, account for its origin by aqueous deposit and
the subsequent modifications which it underwent in passing into
a terrestrial condition.

Lastly, 1 am borne out in this inference by the black colour of
the soil ; for whilst the eminent chemists above cited ha\'e ascer-
tained that soils of very different external appearance are nearly
identical in their analysis with the black earth of Russia, the re-
maining difference, or that of colour, may be due in the English
and French examples to the vegetable matter being less decom-
posed than in the case of the "Tchornoi Zem," an argument I
beg leave to adduce as an additional proof of the materials having
been originally deposited under water.

XII. — Lecttire on the Application of Science to Agriculture.
Delivered before the Members of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, on Thursday the 9th of December, 1841.
By Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S., Hon. Mem. of the
R. E. Agricultural Society, Vice-President of the Geological
Society, and Professor of Rural Economy in the University
of Oxford.

In acceding to the request made to me a few days ago on the
part of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society through
their President, and attempting, in conformity with their wishes,
to deliver before the farmers now assembled in the miCtropolis a
lecture on some subject connected with the class of pursuits

On the j^pjjlication of Science to Agriculture. 137

which this Institution is designed to foster, it may doubtless appear
to many of you that I have undertaken a task, and am occupying
a position, which neither my previous studies nor my present
occupations justify me in assuming. For one indeed like myself,
whose personal experience on matters of rural economy is nearly
limited to the narrow precincts of a garden, to attempt instructing
such an Assembly as the present on the conduct of operations with
which many of those who constitute it have been familiar from
their earliest years, and which in every case must form the subject
of their daily thoughts and occupations, I should indeed regard as
the extreme of presumption, were it not for the reflection, that the
Society before which I now appear is expressly instituted for the
purpose of connecting science with practice, and of summoning to
the support of the agriculture of this country all the supplementary
aid which either geology, botany, or chemistry may be capable of
affording it.

As, therefore, on the former evening, you listened with in-
terest to a Professor of a sister University, when discoursing on
subjects respecting which his own exact botanical knowledge, and
his general acquaintance with the proper methods of experiment-
ing, enabled him, though not a practical farmer, to speak with
something Kke authority — so, on the present, it shall be my
humble endeavour to bring under your consideration those de-
partments of agricultural inquiry, upon which the science of
chemistry either has thrown, or seems likely to throw important

light.

Proceeding, however, in that cautious spirit which ought to be
our guide in matters of such great practical moment, a spirit too
which is expressly inculcated by the Society whose members I
now address, it is not my intention to prescribe to you any parti-
cular modes of culture, even in cases where I may conceive that
the present system runs counter to approved principles of science
— but I would rather wish to suggest doubts, to pave the way to
new lines of investigation, and to point out the manner in which
those experiments which you are undertaking ought to be prose-
cuted, so as to produce results most useful to the public and to
yourselves.

Few, indeed, who recollect the opposite systems of farming
pursued in various parts of England, often without any corre-
sponding variations in soil and climate to account for them, who
consider the unequal amount of produce obtained from land of
apparently similar quality in different situations, and are re-
minded of the superiority in certain points of husbandry which
must be conceded to nations inferior to our own in the scale of
civilisation, will doubt that the agriculture of this country is far
indeed removed from perfection ; and as no fault can be found

138 On the Aj^jdicatlon

with the industry, the dihgent attention, the dnergy which per-
vades the agricultural, no less than every other portion of the
British people, the most promising direction in which we may
hope to attain improvement is by arriving at more enlightened
views with respect to the principles of husbandry, a more thorough
understanding, of the nature of the soil we operate upon, and of
the agents by which its condition is to be ameliorated.

It must be admitted, indeed, that there Avas at no period of
our history a greater disposition for making trial of new methods
of culture ; and, moreover, that the experiments most popular at
the present time are precisely those which have reference to the
action of chemical agents upon the soil. But, judging from those
cases which have fallen under my own personal observation, I
should be led to apprehend, that the unscientific manner in which
the investigations are oftentimes conducted, and the absence of
any leading principle in the selection of these fertilising agents,
or in their relative order of succession, have hitherto detracted
much from the value of the results obtained.

I may be permitted perhaps to illustrate my meaning by re-
ference to another practical science, bearing some points of ana-
logy to that which we are now considering. Let us suppose a
physician, without being directed by any insight into the structure
and functions of the human frame, or into the chemical nature of
the drugs employed in medicine, to prescribe to his patients in-
discriminately the various articles of the ' Materia Medica ' in
succession, either singly or intermixed, noting down the results,
and communicating from time to time to the world the cases in
which he had fancied himself successful. Such a person, supposing
his practice sufficiently extensive to enable him to ring all the
changes of which the numerous medicinal agents at his command
admitted, might no doubt in time discover some valuable remedies,
provided only he were able to convey to others a correct idea of
the nature of the ailments, and of the kind of constitutions, in
which each particular mode of treatment had proved successful.
But supposing that the nomenclature of disease at the period in
which he lived was loose and uncertain, supposing that what was
called fever in one place was known by some different appellation
in another, I fear it would be difficult for him to render the in-
formation he had acquired available, except perhaps to those
wdthin the narrow limits of his own neighbourhood. His dis-
coveries, therefore, must either die with himself, or, if adopted
by others, must be expected to lead to many disappointments,
from the mistakes that would occur as to the kinds of disorder
they had been found calculated to remove.

Now the present condition of agriculture does, I fear, in both
these respects, resemble that which I have just been delineating ;

of Science to Agriciiltitrc. 139

there is no lack, iudeed, of diligent and active prescribers, or of
new recipes for improving the constitution and remedying the
defects of the soil : but inasmuch as they have been tried, like the
nostrums of the empiric, v/ithout any directing principle, we
know not how to adapt them to the altered chxumstances of the
land ; Avhilst, owing to the want of an exact nomenclature, cal-
culated to serve as an universal language, wherewith to express
the character of our soils, we are even disappointed in applying
them where the circumstances are conceived to be the same.

Professor Henslow has already, in his lecture of yesterday,
remarked the vague sense in which many terms are used by
husbandmen, no less than the difference in their acceptation
amongst this class of persons from that which they are commonly
understood to imply ; and it must be confessed that what he has
pointed out as a defect in agricultural language in general, is
applicable to the nomenclature of soils more particularly.

Thus any loose clay is called marl in some parts of England,
and loam in others ; whilst the latter term is interpreted by one
person to mean a fat earth, and by another is defined to be a
mixture of clay, calcareous earth, and sand, without the propor-
tions being stated.

" On referring to books on husbandry" (says Sir G. Sinclair),
''we are directed to a hazel-loam, a brown-loam, a clayey-loam,
or to a humid sandy soil, garden mould, &c. ; but, owing to the
perplexity arising out of the want of proper definitions, we find
it utterly impracticable to determine what kind of soil is meant ;
so that, of fifty different kinds I have myself examined in various
parts of the kingdom, those under the same name appeared to
differ greatly in their respective qualities."

I will therefore proj)ose to the adoption of agriculturists, as a
preliminary step, a system of classifying soils, founded expressly
and entirely upon the relative proportion of their prevailing in-
gredients — namely, that of the siliceous, the argillaceous, and
calcareous earth present in them.

In the arrangement now offered for your consideration,* we
will begin with those soils which contain little or no calcareous
matter — at the outside, not so much as 5 per cent, of the whole
mass.

These, supposing them to possess 50 per cent, of clay, are
placed under the head of argillaceous soils, and are distinguished
into two orders, the first wholly destitute of lime, the second con-
taining less than 5 per cent, of that earth. Each of these orders
are then subdivided into three species, distinguished as rich,
poor, and intermediate, accordmg to the proportion of humus or

* See Table I.

140 On the Application

vegetable mould present in them. If the amount of this ingre-
dient be not more than J per cent, the soils are called poor, as
the fertility of a soil is in all cases greatly influenced by the
proportion of this ingredient ; if it varies from 0*5 to 1*5 per
cent., it is called intermediate; if from 1 • 5 to 5*0 per cent., it
is distinguished as rich.

The second class of soils comprehends those which contain
from 30 to 50 per cent, of clay, and is denominated loamy.
These likewise are divided into two orders, the one with, the other
V, ithout lime ; and again into three species, according to the pro-
portion of vegetable mould present in them.

The third class embraces those soils which contain not more
than 30 nor less than 20 per cent, of clay. They are called
sandy loams, and are subdivided into orders and species, on the
same principle as before.

In the next, or fourth class, under the denomination of loamy
lands, are ranged those soils which contain from 10 to 20 per cent,
of clay : the remainder, with the exception of the small per centage
of limestone and hum.us they may contain, consisting of sand.

The fifth class, designated as sandy, includes all those soils in
which the proportion of clay does not exceed 10 per cent.; and
here again the same subdivisions are adopted.

Hitherto, the amount of calcareous matter present is not sup-
posed to exceed 5 per cent. ; but in the next class, that of marly
soils, the above ingredient ranges in a proportion varying from
5 to 20 per cent, of the whole.

Marly soils are to be distinguished into five orders, of which
the first, called argillaceous, contains about 50 per cent, of clay ;
the second, loamy, from 30 to 50 ; the third, sandy-loamy, from
20 to 30; the fourth, loamy-sandy, from 10 to 20 ; and the fifth
is distinguished by the larger proportion of humus, which exceeds
in quantity 5 per cent, of the whole, and is therefore denoted as
humous marl ; which last is divided into three species — viz.,
argillaceous, which contains above 50 per cent, of clay ; loamy,
which contains from 30 to 50 per cent. ; and sandy, possessing
from 20 to 30 per cent, of the same ingredient.

We next arrive at that class of soils which contains more than
20 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and which is therefore distin-
guished as calcareous. These are subdivided according to the
proportion of clay they may contain : when this earth exists in
the proportion of more than 50 per cent., they are to be called
argillaceous ; when it is from 30 to 50, loamy; when from 20 to
SO, they are said to belong to the sandy loams of the calcareous
class; when from 10 to 20, to the loamy sands; and when either
destitute of clay altogether, or containing at most only 10 per
cent, of it, they are called sandy.

of Science to Agriculture. 141

Lastly, a calcareous soil which contains more than 5 per cent,
of vegetable mould belongs to the sixth order, that of humous cal-
careous soils, of which there are three species — namely, the argil-
laceous, the loamy, and the sandy, characterised, as before, by
the larger or smaller proportion of clay present in them.

The last class, that of humous soils, is distinguished, in the first
place, into three orders. The first consists of soluble mild humus
— that is, of that description of vegetable mould which is in a fit
condition to nourish the plants which grow in it ; the second, of
acid humus, namely, containing a free acid, which by its presence
is highly destructive to most kinds of vegetation. A third order
consists of fibrous vegetable matter, such as peat, which, though
not acid, is yet in a condition little fitted for imparting nourish-
ment to plants. These orders are again subdivided into argil-
laceous, loamy, and sandy, according to the proportion of clay
present in them ; and lastly distinguished into two species, the
one containing, the other destitute of calcareous matter.

Such is the classification which has been proposed by a German
writer,* and which appears to me to have the merit of embracing
almost every variety of chemical composition found in nature
amongst soils ; nor shall I make any apology for entering into
this detailed explanation of it, as I conceive that, independently
of its use in suggesting to us in what ingredients a given soil may
be deficient, the advantage of being provided with a method of
accurately defining the quality of any piece of land which has
been made the subject of your experiments cannot but be appre-
ciated by every practical farmer.

But now the question occurs — in what manner is the requisite
information to be obtained ? To a person altogether ignorant of
chemistry the only method that presents itself is to depend upon
the science of others, and to obtain an analysis of the soil from
some competent authority; but as this, if adopted frequently,
would prove both expensive and troublesome, it were very de-
sirable if that limited amount of chemical knowledge could be
diffused throughout the agricultural community which might
enable each individual to determine for himself, in a rude way,
the chemical constitution of the soils he cultivates. Certain easy
directions for this purpose are given by the Rev. Mr. Rham, in
the first Number of the Journal published by this Society ; and
I am persuaded that by following his instructions every farmer
would be enabled, if possessed of a slight elementary know-
ledge of chemistry, to ascertain, after a little practice, the con-

" Schlibler, in his work entitled " Grundsatze der Agricultur-Chemie."
Leipsic, 1838.

142 On the Application

stituents of his land, so far as to determine its proper place in our
system of arrangement.

Let me, however, remind you that such a rude analysis as I
recommend tells you nothing respecting the presence or absence
of many ingredients, which exist indeed in minute quantities
in the soil, but which nevertheless occasion the most decided
differences in its equalities as affecting vegetation. Such are the
alkalies and the phosphoric acid, both of which necessarily escape
detection whenever we examine such small quantities of the soil
as usually are submitted to analysis. It is therefore no reflec-
tion upon Sir H. Davy, in the last age, or on any chemist of
the present, if, under such circumstances, he is silent as to the
presence of these ingredients in the samples which he had under-
taken to analyse.* If, therefore, information be sought on these
points, larger portions of the soil must be sent, and a greater
amount of chemical skill v^ill be called into requisition ; but
where the object is merely to determine the sort of soil which
exists on a given property, then a small quantity only need be
examined, and a degree of science, such as would be easily
attainable by most farmers, will suffice.

Furnished, then, with this species of universal language, the
agriculturist would be enabled to speak intelligibly, whenever
he attempted to convey to others the results of his own experi-
ments on the culture of land of a particular quality : he would
then stand in the position occupied by a physician of a remote

* Thus Sir C. Lemon last autumn expressed to me his surprise that a
sample of the soil taken from the Serpentine of the Lizard was pronounced
by Mr. R. Phillips, to whom it had been sent for examination, to be totally
destitute of magnesia. I told him that I could myself state that no quan-
tity of that earth considerable enough to be detected in a sample consisting
of only a few hundred grains was present in it, having some time back
executed a rough analysis of this soil. It would have been rash, however,
to have concluded from this that magnesia was e7itirely absent, for ]\Ir. E.
Solby has since informed me, that by operating on a much larger amount
he has succeeded, not only in detecting ihe existence of the earth in ques-
tion, but even of estimating the proportion it bears to the other ingredients.
It has been remarked in the text, that phosphate of lime is another con-
stituent of soils often overlooked, owing to the small quantity usually
submitted to analysis. I may add, that several years ago I detected its
presence in a great many specimens of secondary limestones in which
Dr. Buckland had suspected the existence of coprolitic matter (one no
doubt, but by no means the only source, from which it is derived). Within
the last month I have been favoured by a letter from Mr. Schweitzer, the
intelligent Director of the German Spa at Brighton, in which he states that
he has discovered it in the proportion of one-thousandth part in the chalk of
Brighton, and I have since found the phosphate in a somewhat larger
quantity in the same formation, from the neighbourhood of Sudbury in
Suffolk.

of Science to Agriculture. 143

age, living at a period indeed at which the treatment of diseases
was empirical, but at least possessing the means of conveying to
others, by the aid of a precise system of nosology, a knowledge
of the nature of the disorder for which a certain class of remedies
had been found beneficial.

But the adoption of a precise nomenclature, though an im-
portant preliminary step, carries us after all but a small way
towards that goal which the agriculturist should aim at attaining ;
and he who is content with knowing what manures will suit his
land, without troubling himself to ascertain the principle on
which they act, is as far removed from a system of perfect hus-
bandry, as the empiric of a former age is from the more enlightened
practice of the present day. Why, for example, a method of
culture, which has succeeded to admiration on one kind of land,
appears inapplicable to another ; why a manure, which has pro-
duced great crops the first year, seems to lose its effect on the
next; or why the fertilising influence which it exerted when
applied originally should be succeeded by the opposite effect at a
later period ; w^hy a difference of season should cause an entire
change in its effects upon the same land : these, and many other
problems of the same description, we can only be said to be on
the way to solve, when we have first settled amongst ourselves the
principle upon which the substances applied to our land operate
in improving it.

At present the agricultural world seems divided on this point
between two theories, both of them probably applicable to cer-
tain cases, but nevertheless carefully to be distinguished as lead-
ing to the greatest discrepancies in practice. The first of these
considers manure as serving for food to plants : the latter regards
them in some sense as stimulants to their vegetation.

Here, however, as in the former instance, much confusion has
arisen, in consequence of the term manure being applied to desig-
nate two classes of agents essentially distinct. Thus some of the
substances alluded to, such as quicklime, or its carbonate, act by
improving the mechanical or chemical qualities of the soil and
humus to which they are applied ; and to this operation the French
term amendment of the soil would seem to be appropriate.
Other manures, on the contrary, such as the dung of animals,
exert a more direct influence upon the plants themselves ; and it
is to these latter alone that either of the two theories alluded to
can be considered applicable.

Thus whilst the former class of manures communicates to the
soil those qualities upon w^iich vigorous and active vegetation
depends, the other may be supposed to supply the means for car-
rying it on ; both of them conditions equally essential to the
growth of plants, though each one perfectly distinct from the

144 On the Application ■

other — just as the nourishment of an animal depends both upon
a healthy state of his organs of digestion and upon a due supply
of nutritious aliment.

There is, however^, a third description of manures every day
coming more and more into vogue, which are by some considered
to supply food, and by others regarded as acting in the capacity
of stimulants to plants.

To the latter class belong those various saline and earthy com-
pounds, which a more extended acquaintance with chemistry, and
an increased communication with foreign countries, have brought
within the reach of the farmer : such, for example, as the nitrates
of soda and of potass — the bone-earth, so extensively employed
upon our turnip-fields — the gypsum, so useful on clover and grass
land — and numerous other mineral substances, which will imme-
diately occur to you.

To ascertain in what manner these latter kinds of manure
operate in fertilizing the soil is not, as some might suppose, a
mere object of curiosity or of speculative interest, since its decision
will afford us the means of determining the proper proportion in
which to apply them, the kind of soils which will be most benefited
by their addition, and many other points of an equally practical
character.

Whether these substances ever operate in any other manner,
as, for example, as stimulants, may be afterwards discussed ; but
that some of them at least are serviceable, by providing those con-
stituents which the soil only contains, if at all, in limited quan-
tities, cannot, I think, be disputed.

With regard to bone-earth, which is now so extensively applied
to the lands of this country, there can be no doubt that phosphate
of lime, which constitutes its predominant ingredient, is secreted
by the organs of a plant, and supplies the place of that which
had been drawn from the soil by preceding crops. Its peculiar
adaptation for turnips, which contain a larger per centage of
phosphoric acid than any other of the ordinary crops of this
country ; its usefulness on dairy-farms, where a great quantity of
phosphate of lime is continually drawn from the soil in the form
of butter and cheese sold off the estate ; and its serving to a
certain extent as a substitute for farm-yard manure (the solid part
of which consists in a great degree of this same substance), are
circumstances all lending support to such an opinion. Now, with
the view of taking advantage in our practice, as far as possible,
of a theory which seems so plausible, as well as of testing its truth
still further by the results of our experience, I conceive it would
be a very useful exercise, if each agriculturist, besides entering in
a book the amount per acre of the crops obtained, and of the
different kinds of manure applied, were also to calculate the weight

of Science to Agriculture. 145

of those solid ingredients contained in his crops, of which the
soil possesses only a limited quantity ; as likewise the weight of
the same which was present in the manure that had been added
to them.

But as an actual analysis of his crops, though by far the most
accurate method of attaining such knowledge, would involve a
degree of labour and science which few agriculturists could afford,
it seems desirable that tables should be drawn up of the ingre-
dients existing in all our ordinary crops, compiled from the best
authorities that can be obtained. A specimen of such a table,
which I have myself constructed for this purpose, stands now in
the room under the title of " Agricultural Constants ;" * and on
inspecting it you will immediately understand that it would be
easy for the farmer to establish a system of scientific bookkeeping,
by entering on the debtor side the materials that had been ab-
stracted from the soil by his crops, and on the creditor side that
restored to it by his manure : thus enabling him to ascertain
whether his plan of farming has a tendency to enrich or to im-
poverish his land. From this table it will appear that if an
average crop of —

Wheat be reckoned at 30 bushels, weighing 18001b

will have abstracted from the soil
Barley, 36 bushels = 1 ,900 lbs.
Oats,' 30 do. 1,200

Potatoes, 6 tons 13,000

Turnips, 30 do. 33,000

C'--'{2::dX'"'"Td"'l= 2i at 1 ton per load

Beans, 24 bushels, ' 1,200 lbs.

Let us next illustrate this method of bookkeeping by reference
to the Table now in the room, in which I have quoted the results
given by Mr. Morton in his interesting work on soils, with re-
spect to the system of husbandry pursued by him on Lord Ducie's
example-farm at Tortworth. It will there be seen that, adopting
his statements, there would have been abstracted per acre from
the soil in six years —

* See Table II., on the Constituents ofcertam crops, a title which I have
adopted in preference to that given in the text, as the proportions of the
ingredients are by no means cojistant, varying, within certain limits not yet
defined, according to circumstances.
, VOL. HI. ^ L

Phosphoric Acid.

lbs.

oz.

7

3

4

13

5

3

24

6

3

3

8

146

On the Application

1st year, by mangel-wurzel, =
2nd do. wheat, 4 qrs.
straw to do.

3rd do.
4th do.

5th do.
6th do.

clover,
oats, 7 qrs.
straw to do.
turnips, 25 tons
wheat, 4 qrs.

30 tons
1900 lbs. .
3000
2600
3000
3000

1900

Total of phosphoric acid
As 214—442—71—147, about = 147 lbs. of phosph

losphonc A

cid.

lbs.

oz.

11

1

7

9

1

12

3

10

2

1

12

36

5

7

9

71

10

1. lime.

Added to ditto per acre during the same period

1st, The phosphate of lime present in the dung of
cattle fed on the farm

lbs. oz.

2ndly, Straw of the wheat . 1 12

, , oats . 112

quantity unknown.

3 8
3rdly, Fifteen bushels -of bone-dust at 56 lbs. pei

bushel, consisting of —
Animal matter
Various salts, not phosphate
Phosphate of lime

839 10

277

5

84

462

16

5

lbs. oz.
3 8

230
9

Total 242 8

Now it follows from this calculation, that Mr. Morton had
added to his land, in the course of six years, more by 171 lbs.
of phosphoric acid than had been taken off from it by the crops,
even without reckoning that present in the dung of the sheep and
cattle, the quantity of which is not ascertained : so that it would
appear, either that a much smaller amount of bone earth would
have answered as well, or that some other purpose besides that of
supplying the crop with phosphoric acid is fulfilled by it.

It must evidently be of the highest importance to determine
which of these two be the true statement, since, if the former
should turn out correct, then an unnecessary expenditure of an
expensive material has been incurred; and if the latter be esta-
blished, its recognition might lead us to discover some other
material by wdiich this secondary object could be more effectually
attained.

Amongst many other suggestions that may occur to us from
having such tables constantly before our eyes, there is one to
which I shall advert, inasmuch as it bears relation to certain

of Science to Agriculture. I4f

points of theory recently introduced^ and pregnant with some most
important applications to practice.

Upon turning to the Table of Agricultural Constants you will
perceive, that whilst an average crop of turnips, if estimated at
25 tons, contains 24 lbs. of phosphoric acid, one of wheat, con-
sisting of 1800 lbs., will contain only 7 lbs. 3 ozs. of that ingre-
dient ; and yet that, on examining the per centage of nitrogen, its
proportion in either case will appear to approach nearly to an
equality : that present in the crop of wheat being about 4J lbs. ;
and in the crop of turnips, 5Jlbs.

Now the interesting researches of Professor Liebig, with which
I presume the agricultural world is by this time familiar, and
upon which, moreover, I am unwilling here to dwell, as they
have already formed the subject of one of my former lectures,
reprinted in a late Number of this Society's Journal — these re-
searches, I say, seem to have rendered it probable that nitrogen
cannot be secreted by plants directly from the atmosphere.

I am aware, indeed, that the French chemist, Boussingault, was
led to the opposite conclusion, from experiments made by him
upon the Jerusalem Artichoke ; but the nitrogen which this
vegetable appeared to have drawn from the air may, I conceive,
have been derived from the ammonia which rain-water always
contains, and which vegetable mould holds in a condensed state
within its pores.

If this be admitted, it will then follow, that nitrogen, in order
to furnish food to plants, must always have been previously
combined with some other element, by which that tendency to
assume an elastic state, which would prevent its assimilation, may
be controlled.

Hence the dependence of a productive wheat-crop upon an
abundant supply of animal manure, which, by disengaging am-
monia, affords it this necessary element in a fit condition to undergo
absorption ; and hence the superior efficacy of liquid manure over
every other kind, as it disengages a larger amount of the volatile
alkali.

By reference to the Table now standing in the room,* it will be

* The Table is extracted from one given by Hermbstoedl, in the ' Annalen
der Landwirthschaft,' vol. xxii., Part I., and is as follows : —
100 parts of wheat, in soil manured with —

Human urine (dried)
Bullock's blood (dried) .
Human fgeces (dried)
Sheep's dung .

Pigeon's dung , .

Cow's dung .
Vegetable humus
Same, but not manured .

Contained of

Gluten.

Starch.

35-1 .

39-1

34-2 .

41-3

33-1 .

41-4

22-9 .

42-8

12-2 .

63-2

12-0 .

62-3

9-6 .

55-9

9.2 .

G6'7

L

2

148 On the ylpjj/icatlon

seen, that the proportion of g-luten to starch, as well as the aggre-
gate amount of the crop itself, is augmented by manuring the soil
with those materials which are richest in ammonia, such, for in-
stance, as blood, pigeons' dung, &c.

Now the practical inference I would deduce from this is, first,
that it must be of the highest possible importance to preserve in
tanks, or at least to detain, by the admixture of absorbent ma-
terials, the liquid manure which is so often allowed to run to
waste on your dunghills ; and, secondly, that it might be worth
trying whether a better distribution of the manure at the disposal
of the farmer might not be made, by adding the solid portion of
his dung-heap, which is richest in the phosphates, to the turnip
crop, and reserving the drainings, to be scattered, after the Bel-
gian fashion^ in water-carts, over the ground intended for his
wheat.

May not this also serve to explain, why the nitrates of soda and
of potass are in general found to be less serviceable to the
turnip crop than to the cereal and other grasses ?

Whatever other function these salts may discharge in agricul-
ture, there is one at least which will probably not be denied to
them, that, I mean, of furnishing an abundant supply of nitrogen
to the crop. This arises from the decomposition of their nitric
acid by the organs of the plant through the agency of light; and
as it requnes a greater expenditure of chemical force to resolve
into its elements a compound so stable as nitric acid than to effect
the same with ammonia, we may understand why the influence of
these manures should be so capricious in climates like our own,
where the solar intensity is often interrupted ; and why Nature
has provided that the products of animal decay should present
themselves most commonly, in the form of nitric acid in hot
countries, and in that of ammonia in cold ones.

Now it appears from some recent researches of M. Pay en, in
France,* that the rudiment of every vegetable tissue, the sub-
stance ])rimarily produced in all instances during the development
of the seed or bud, is a matter containing azote, and having some
resemblance to the material which constitutes the muscular fibre
of animals.

Access, therefore, to a certahi amount of nitrogen is a necessary
condition for incipient vegetation ; and a supply of animal manure,
or of some substitute for it, such as the nitric salts, must clearly
be indispensable for the rapid development of every kind of plant.
But it is equally manifest, that if a manure rich in nitrogen merely

" In the cambium, preceding the formation of the vegetable, appears
first a granular contractile substance, containing azote. It fills the cells,
the membranes of which are composed of carbon, oxvgen, and hydrogen
only."— Comptes Rendu.s 1839, vol. ii., p. 3Q9.

of Science to Agriculture. 149

be presented to a crop which, like the turnip, contains a large per
centage of phosphoric acid, the growth of the latter may be
checked, from its inability to obtain from the ground alone the
requisite supply of this ingredient, whereas the grasses, which take
up so much less of it, may find enough for their purpose in the soil,
and therefore continue unarrested in their growth.

And this I take to afford the true explanation of the fact ob-
served, that certain manures act more efficiently when first applied
than they are found to do subsequently, a result which matter-
of-fact persons are contented to express by the phrase that the
ground is tired of a certain kind of dressing ; and which those
amongst them who indulge in theory account for by saying, that,
like other stimulants, they lose their influence by repetition.

Now I am ready to admit that these manures, besides supply-
ing the plant v/ith nutriment, may exert an influence upon its
development, of a description which it is, perhaps, necessary to
denominate a stimulating one, until a more appropriate term shall
have been proposed.

This has been clearly explained by Professor Johnston of Dur-
ham, in one of his recently published lectures,* where he shows,
for example, by an appeal to actual experiment, that if two equal
portions of the same grass or corn field in early spring be mea-
sured off, and one of them be top-dressed with nitrate of soda, or
v/ith saltpetre, the v/eight of nitrogen contained in the crop of hay
or corn reaped from the latter v/ill generally be found to exceed
that contained in the crop from the former, by a quantity much
greater than that which was present in the nitrate with which
the field had been dressed. It seems to me, therefore, probable,
that the fuller and more rapid development of the organs of the
plant, which was occasioned by the exuberant supply of nitrogen
derived from the manure, had enabled the living tissue to draw,
from the atmosphere, and from the rain-water in contact with its
roots, a larger amount of nitrogen than it v/ould otherwise be ca-
pable of deriving from the same sources : just as an animal, which,
during its infancy, has thriven on a liberal supply of Avholesome
and generous food, if it should afterwards be confined for a time
to meagre diet, will extract more support from such materials
than another would do, whose organs of digestion had been already
enfeebled by a course of abstinence or depletion.

But in whatever sense we choose to interpret the so-called
stimulating influence of certain manures, it is obviously pursuing
a mistaken analogy to consider the falling off of their efficacy
after repetition as a case at all parallel to that insensibility to

* See Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology.

150 On the Apjylicatlon

stimuli which animals acquire, from their continued use : for to
imagine the soil, an inert mass, susceptible of such an influence,
is obviously absurd ; and inasmuch as every successive crop grown
upon the land consists of an assemblage of new individuals, it
seems no less so to imagine that a given stimulus can in any
respect operate less energetically upon it, in consequence merely
of its having been applied to the crop of the year antecedent.

In many of the cases in which, in the language of husband-
men, the soil is said to tire of a particular species of manure, the
phenomenon may, I think, be readily explained, from the ground
being already surcharged with the material which the latter was
calculated to afford, as under such circumstances no benefit can
be expected to accrue from a more liberal supply of it.

Thus, bone-dust, after producing great returns on its first ap-
plication, seems frequently to lose all effect afterwards : in which
case, however, it may be said that the ground remains benefited
from the effect of the first year's dressing, and is only not further
improved by the subsequent application of the same manure.

But, in other instances, it has been asserted, that the land, after
appearing to reap great immediate benefit from a certain kind of
fertiliser — as, for example, from the nitrates — is left by it after-
wards in even a worse condition than it was in previously. Now
this effect may, I think, become intelligible, if we only recollect,
that the different ingredients which each plant contains must be
secreted in relative proportions one to the other, so that an in-
creased absorption of any one will produce a larger demand for
all the rest.

Hence we may suppose, that the exuberant supply of nitrogen
furnished by these salts had caused the organs of the plant to
secrete so much larger an amount of the earthy phosphates, of the
alkalies, &c., of which there is only a limited proportion present,
that the crop of the succeeding year became stunted by reason of
the soil being no longer able to afford to it, in adequate quan-
tities, these essential elements of its constitution. And if this be
the true account of the matter, the practical inference would seem
to be that, instead of abandoning the use of the nitrates altoge-
ther, as the theory I have been combatting would suggest, it
should be our endeavour to supply those other ingredients which
are deficient, by the addition, at intermediate periods, of bone-
earth or of wood-ashes, in proportions adequate to the demand
for them, occasioned by the expected increase of crop.

FortunateU^ we are provided, in the dung of animals, with a
species of manure of which the land never can be said to tire ; and
for this snnple reason, that it contains within itself not one alone,
but all the ingredients which plants require for their nutrition.

of Science to Agriculture. 151

ancl^ what is perhaps of equal importance, existing too in that
precise condition in which they are most readily taken in and
assimilated.

Where this material is sufficiently cheap and abundant,
other kinds of manure may for the most part be dispensed with ;
but as in certain stages of society the amount of animal life
increases throughout a given region in a greater ratio than the
fixation of gaseous matters which takes place through the instru-
mentality of vegetables can proceed, and as the existence of large
cities tends to disturb the balance which nature seems to aim at
establishing between the quantities of food produced and con-
sumed, by attracting into their vortices a large proportion of the
corn and cattle that has been reared in the country, it is well that
we have at our command, in the various mineral manures which
science has brought to light, the means of supplying the defi-
ciency.

But, assuredly, the most effectual, as well as the most eco-
nomical method of restoring the balance between the town and
country would be to avail ourselves of that enormous accumu-
lation of animal exuviee which the existence of a crowded city ne-
cessarily occasions, and to convert that which is now n pabulum
of disease into a source of life and abundance.

As indeed the geologists of the present day cite as a proof of
the ignorance or neglect of their predecessors, that the stone re-
quired for the fortifications at Gibraltar was brought out from
England, when it might have been obtained upon the very spot ; so I
conceive our descendants will marvel at the inattention to chemical
science evinced by the present generation of farmers, in exporting
from distant regions, such as South America, substitutes, and those,
perhaps, but imperfect ones, for that fertilizing material, of which
the greater part is allowed to deposit itself unprofitably in the
beds of our rivers.

Not that I would by any means be supposed to discourage,
under present circumstances, the importation of fertilizing ma-
terials from abroad. Some of these, such as the Guano, lately
introduced into this country from the islands of the Pacific,
contain ammoniacal salts in a more concentrated form than any
other known species of manure ; whilst others, such as bone-earth,
comprise within a given compass a larger amount of phosphoric
acid — hence their portability may give them advantages, by secur-
ing greater economy of transport, in spite of the distance from
whence they are brought : nor must we forget, that the measures
for carrying off filth adopted in large cities are of a nature
which would preclude us from obtaining it in sufficient quantity,
in case that any great increase in the demand for it^ as a manure,
should hereafter be created.

152 On the Application

It is only, therefore, to the neglect of this material in places
where it can be obtained cheaply and abundantly, that my obser-
vations apply ; but they may at least serve to suggest to us the
advantages of making all the use of it we can, and of endeavour-
ing to reduce what we have in excess to a condition in which it
may be conveniently transported to a distance.

The means of preserving and rendering portable the night-soil
and other impurities of a great metropolis, as well as the various
expedients by which farm-yard manure may be applied to the
best advantage, and its volatile parts either retained or slowly dis-
engaged, as occasion may require, would alone afford us materials
for another lecture — in the present I only allude to these topics
as additional proofs of the advantages that would accrue, from
having some amount of chemical knowledge diffused generally
throughout the agricultural community.

But how is this important point to be secured ? The present
generation of farmers, living, as they often do, at a distance from
the great emporiums of science, and being in all cases engrossed
by the daily routine of practical avocations, can hardly find much
time to devote to the acquisition of theoretical knowledge ; and of
them all perhaps that can be .expected is, that they should arrive
at a sense of its value, coupled with a desire, that those who follow
their footsteps may possess that information in which they feel
their own deficiency.

It is to the rising generation that we must principally look for
improving the practice of husbandry by a due attention to its
jyrincijjles ; and this can only be brought about by instilling into
the minds of those at least amongst their number who look for-
ward to the management of large estates, either of their own or of
others, the elements of physical science, at a period of life when
the attention is most awake, and the thoughts unoccupied by more
imperious duties.

It is remarkable that, of all the nations of civilised Europe,
England is perhaps the only one which is destitute of any public
establishment for the instruction of those designed for agriculture,
although two centuries ago the poet Cowley was alive to its im-
portance, as, in one of his prose essays, he strongly recommends
the erection of a College in each of our Universities, for the
express purpose of educating those who were to be trained to
husbandry in the several arts of aration, pasturage, gardening,
and rural economy.

In France the establishment of Grignon, near Paris, supplies
means of instruction for more than a hundred pupils in the
elements of physics, in chemistry, in botany, in other branches of
natural history, and in the veterinary art. In the kingdom of
Wirtemburg, that of Hohenheim near Stuttgard, to which is

of Science to Acjricidhire, 153

assigned one of the royal palaces, provides a still more complete
course of education of a similar kind. In Bavaria^ in Prussia, in
Lombardy, and in the Tuscan territory, the respective govern-
ments have evinced an equal solicitude for the same end ; and
even Ireland has in this respect taken the start of ourselves by the
foundation of a school of agriculture.

In these and similar institutions theory goes hand in hand with
experience, and the practical management of a farm alternates
with, and illustrates the lectures of the professors. It is there-
fore the more a matter for surprise, as well as of regret, that in
this country, where the demands of a rapidly increasing popu-
lation ou2fht to tax to the utmost the skill and invention of hus-
bandmen, the student in agriculture finds himself often com-
pelled, from the want of similar provisions of a public nature,
to serve his apprenticeship in the art in parts of the country
offering no facilities whatsoever for the acquisition of scientific
knowledge.

Should, however, as it may be hoped will happen, this glaring
deficiency in our provisions for national instruction be hereafter sup-
plied, we must not flatter ourselves that by its ineans the great body
of those actively engaged in agriculture will acquire the leisure and
science necessary for solving those many intricate problems that lie
on the very threshold of agricultural chemistry. To determine,
for example, in what precise manner the several artificial manures
operate upon the crops ; by what agency and under what cir-
cumstances the latter are enabled to decompose them, and how
far one of them admits of being substituted for another, are tasks,
each of which demands, not only a profound acquaintance with
modern chemistry, but likewise a devotion of time and of attention
not often compatible with active occupations. And whilst the
wealthier agriculturist would be discouraged from the prosecution
of such experiments by the above considerations, men of moderate
means may also be precluded from undertaking them by the
pecuniary sacrifices with which they would be necessarily attended.
Considering, therefore, the great national importance of many of
these inquiries; the immense increase in the produce of the
country that would accrue from any discover}, however incon-
siderable, in the principles of husbandry; and the difficulty of
meeting in any one individual with that union of science, perse-
verance, capital, and devotion, both of time and money, which
such experiments involve ; the supplying means for carrying them
into effect would seem to be precisely one of those objects, which
should engage the attention of societies of men combined together
with a view to the advancement of agriculture.

It is on these grounds that I think much advantage would be

154 On the Aj^ipUcatmi

derived from the establishment, under proper management, of an
Experimental Farm — not that I would discourage the great body
of farmers from making such experiments as they may feel them-
selves equal to, or deny the necessity of repeating the same ope-
rations on various kinds of land before their advantage can be
regarded as sufficiently tested; but that I conceive there are many
trains of research which will never be attempted, or, if attempted,
will never be successfully carried out, without such an auxiliary.

The foundation indeed of an experimental farm, under the
auspices of this Society, or of more than one, if the zeal of the
leading agriculturists could be sufficiently awakened to raise the
requisite funds, has been long and anxiously desired by many
persons of great practical experience in agricultural matters ;"^' and
I cannot but think that if each of them were conducted by an ex-
perienced supervisor, who should be expected to carry into effect
the views and suggestions of such men of science as may have
directed their attention to the theory of agriculture, those deficient
links would shortly be supplied, which, even if considered in
themselves unimportant, are nevertheless necessary parts of the
chain which serves to connect our theory with our practice.

If in juxtaposition with each of these establishments on which
new methods of culture were tried, and the precise operation of
the various manures worked out, there was founded a model or
example farm for exhibiting the most approved system of hus-
bandry now in use, every discovery that should be announced
as having been brought to light at the former might undergo the
further test of being repeated at the latter, before it received the
iinal impress of the Society's sanction.

And let it not be supposed that either the model-farms which
are already instituted, or which may hereafter be set on foot
under the auspices of any public Body, such, for instance, as the
Society I am now addressing, could supersede or take the place
of one designed for agricultural experiments.

Since a model-farm, in order to serve as an example to the
neighbourhood, must be conducted with a view to profit, all new
schemes of cultivation which do not carry with them on their very
face a reasonable probability of advantage must be necessarily
rejected ; and yet, where the object is one of national and not of
individual gain, the discovery of a single new fact would compen-
sate for a hundred unsuccessful trials. If experiments are divided
into those which produce fruit, and those which elicit light, it is

* I may instance, in particular, Sir Francis Mackenzie of Gairloch, Bart.,
who has been urgent in his solicitations, first to the Highland Society, and
since, as I understand, to the Royal Agricultnral Society of England, to
establish Experimental Farms in both countries.

of Science to Agriculture. 155

evident that the former only can be expected to meet with atten-
tion on farms which are either in the hands of individuals, or
which are intended as examples for their imitation ; but as the
distinction made by Lord Bacon by no means implies that the
latter class of experiments is barren, but only that the fruit they
bear is of tardier growth, this Society could not be accused of
losing sight of those practical ends for which it was instituted, if,
in the spirit of the instructions of the great Restorer of Learning, it
sought for experiments which afford light, even in preference to
those which promise immediate profit.

A Society like this, indeed, may be said to bear the same rela-
tion to an individual Proprietor which the latter does to the Tenant
at will ; and as the prospect of a remote and contingent advantage
often stimulates the landlord to embark his capital and labour on
improvements which the yearly occupant would reasonably shrink
from engaging in ; so a still more far-sighted view of future benefit
to the community, and a more enduring interest in the welfare of
this mighty empire, may justify a Body of men like that to v/hich
I now appeal in instituting experiments of a description such as
few individuals could be induced to undertake.

15G

Gu. thr ApplicaivM

Agricultural Designations and general Relations
with reference to their Produce.*

/,a«rf ./ijr JFIieat and Spelt.
The calcareous kinds not too rich in clay, and not
too poor in sand and humus, give good returns.
^Mieat, spelt, barley, rape, beans, flax, and clover
floiiri.sh in it especially. Those poor in humus are
still suited for oats.

lAindfor Barley.
The soils which are rich in iiumus, and contain
lime, are well suited even for wlieat and spelt, and
often approach lu'arly to the foreiroing kinds. They
are, moreover, suited lor Triticum dicoecnm? (Em-
mer), one-grained wheat (Einkorn), rye, oats, rape
(Keps), flax, and clover.

Zanri /(;r 5a)7<?7/ and Oats.

Less suited for wheat and spelt than the former
soils, but even better adapted for Triticum dicoecnm
and T. monococcum, as well as for rye. Potatoes,
turnips, and other roots thrive well in it.

Land for Oats and Rye.

Barley thrives well in those rich in humus. They
are also well suited for buckwheat. Wheat, spelt,
and (dover do not succeed.

Lar.d for Bye.

Of less value ; often cultivated only every third
year, and the poor land often not at all. Those con-
taining humus arc chiefly lit for buckwheat, oats,
hemp, tobacco, potatoes, and spergula arvensis.

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1. AuaiLLACKOrs

Soils.

Above 50 per cent, of

Clay.

More than 5 per cent.

of Lime.

2. Loamy Soils.

Not more than 50 nor
less than 30 per cent,
of Clay.

Not more than 5 of
Lime.

o. Sanpy Loams.

Not more than 30 nor
less than 20 per cent.
of Clay:

Not more than 5 of
Lime.

4. Loamy Sands.

Not more than 20 nor
less than 10 per cent,
of Clay.

Less than 5 per cent,
of Lime.

5. Sani>y Soils.

Not more than 10 per ^

cent, of Clay.
Less than 5 per cent.

of Lime.

xri
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of Science to AgncuUitre.

157

1

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The argillaceous soils often approacli in value to
the argillace(ms m:irls ; the remaining orders of both |
these classes eijually correspond one with the other : |
to the most valuable belongs, as in the former case, the |
liumous. Those wanting in humus require much i
manure. Those rich iu clay are well suited for
spelt and wheat; oats, Triticum dicoccum, lucern,
and sainfoin thrive ia them. Their value is mucli
decreased by containing an excess of lime.

The value of these soils is greatly augmented by
admixture with lime. Those which contain lime
and clay are suited for wheat, spelt, barley, and
oleaginous plants; the loamy and sandy are espe-
cially adapted for oats, and in most places for wheat.
The peaty and acid humous may be made fruitful by
admixture with lime, sand, and clay.

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7. Calcareous Soils.

Containing mor(! than\
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8. Husious Soils.

Containing more thnn^
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158

Oa the Application

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of Science to Agriculture.

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( 161 )

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS AND NOTICES.

I. — Application of Blue Shale to the Surface of Land.

To the Secretary.

Sir, — Every one who has travelled through the coal districts must
have observed immense accumulations near the pits of a blue clay-like
substance brought up from the mines, called in the West Riding of
Yorkshire ^^ Blue ShcUe.^' The rapidity with which this accumulates, in
most instances, makes it inconvenient, and in time it becomes a great
incumbrance. It is often burnt, and in that state is found useful for
the growth of turnips drilled along with crushed bones ; but as the
whole of the mass is to turn over before it will burn thoroughly, the
burning of it becomes tedious and expensive.

Having a farm, of which many parts are hilly and very thin of soil,
without any bed of clay or marl near it, has compelled me to try many
experiments to find a substitute for them, and having now some years'
experience of the utility of applying this blue shale to the gravelly parts
of my farm, I am induced by the success which has attended its appli-
cation to submit my observations of one experiment (amongst many I
have tried) to your Society to show that even this article, which is gene-
rally considered not only useless but absolutely a nuisance, may become
of value if applied to soils of a gravelly and sandy nature.

The soil upon which I have tried it is that lying upon the magnesian
limestone near Ferrybridge, proverbial for its natural poverty and in-
ability to resist drought.

Amongst the experiments I above mentioned I found a great advan-
tage in applying the " Blue Shale " on my pastured seeds in autumn
previous to ploughing them up for wheat to the extent of 12 two-horse
cart-loads per acre. I invariably found it of great use, its effects being
visible in the wheat crop, not only from the straw being stronger and
longer, but the ear was much better filled and the grain plumper than
in those parts of the field where it had not been applied, and its effects
were very visible for several years afterwards.* That it wasof greatuse
to my land, being thus ascertained, caused me to apply it more liberally ;
and the result of one experiment of this liberal application I now lay
before you.

One of the fields of my farm had been considered for many years of
so little value as not to be worth the trouble of cultivating it, and, from
the grass-roots dying away in summer on the hilly parts, it was of no
value when laid in grass. My predecessor in the farm had suffered this
field to lie (once ploughed out of stubble) for several years, until it was

* An instance is now visible where applied in 1 833 ; the field is now wheat, and
where the shale was applied appears much more luxuriant. — May, 1842.
VOL. III. M

162 Application of Blue Shale to the Surface of Land.

overgrown with weeds, twitch, and thistles, which had shed their seeds
for years unmolested.

This field is 7 acres, exclusive of the fences, and consists of the sides,
or rather the ends, of two steep hills facing east and west, with a valley
between them. The hills take up about 5i acres, the valley the re-
mainder. A great portion of the soil has been washed from the top and
sides of the hills, and little has been left more than a mass of small
gravel-like stones about 2 inches thick, on the top of about 4 inches of
sandy soil.

The substratum is yellowish calcareous sand,* called here marl, but a
more inappropriate name could not be given to it — it is very porous ;
the sides and tops of these hills in a dry season not supporting any vege-
tation whatever to maturity excepting poppies.

I entered to the occupation of this field in January, 1833, and, the
spring being favourable, I was enabled to sow it with white Norfolk
turnips in June, giving it 9 three-horse cart-loads of rotten manure
per acre, and drilling in with the turnips a compost, made some weeks
before, of 14 qrs. of crushed bones, half-inch, and their dust, 10 qrs. of
kiln-dust, and 28 qrs. of fine ashes from weeds burnt. These turnips
were a complete failure in every part except the valley (swealing away,
to use a provincial term, both on the tops and sides of the hills), in
which the crop was good, and eaten off with sheep. In 1834 sowed it
with barley and small seeds for pasturing, giving it 12 bushels of rape-
dust per acre — produce of the whole field, 11 qrs. 3 bushels of barley,
or 13 bushels per acre. On the hills a great portion did not shoot into
ear. In 1835 and 1836 pastured with sheep ; in October, 1836, solved it
with wheat and rye (called here maslin) and 16 bushels of rape-dust
per acre; 1837, wheat and rye — produce of the whole field, 9 qrs. 1
bushel, or 7| bushels per acre. Again the corn badly fed, and the rye
scarcely having half-a-dozen grains in an ear.

Being satisfied that giving this field the tillage I was doing, without
its producing me some better crops, would not pay me, I determined to
cover the hills with "blue shale," which in other parts of my farm I
had found of use ; and commenced immediately after harvest, when the
carting was good. I had to lead it about one-third of a mile ; and in
the whole laid upon the hills 287 three-horse cart-loads, at a cost of
11/. 11j,, viz. —

* I have attempted to improve my farm by an admixture of soils, and have found it
by far the most certain way of making ferm.anent im-provenients. The calcareous sand
here mentioned, which m the neighbourhood has been considered perfectly poisonous to
plants, by mixing it liberally with the soil, I have found to contribute to a considerable
increase of my crop. — C. C.

This experiment is interesting, and may lead to others of a similar nature. The great
advantage of a mixture of different earths, even of those which are barren in their
nature, in improving the fertility of a soil, is as yet but little known. It is of no use
to manure highly, until the texture of the soil and its power of absorbing and retain-
ing moisture be ascertained ; and the earths which are the cause of the l)arrenuess of
one soil, may greatly improve another of an opposite quality, when mixed with it.
We know this to be the case with chalk and marl ; but much remains yet to be done
by a mixture of gravel, sand, peat, clay, and decomposed rocks, and experiments on a
moderate scale will throw much light on this subject. — W. L. Rham.

£. s.

d.

y 2 8

6

12

8 5

£11 11

Application of Blue Shale to the Surface of Land. 163

4 men, filling and spreading, 6 days, at 2-9. Od. per day

1 do. do. do. 3 days, at 2s. Od. , ,

2 lads, driving, &c. . 6 days, at 1^. Od. , ,
1 1 horses . . .6 days, at 2s. 6d. , ,

I immediately ploughed it in ; and about Christmas I cross-ploughed it.
With repeated workings I mixed it intimately with the soil ; and after
cleaning it I sowed it in June, 1838, with hybrid turnips, giving it 8
three-horse loads of rotten manure per acre, and drilling on the whole
field a compost of 14 qrs. of half-inch bones, with their dust, and 14 qrs.
of vegetable ashes, made from weeds, &c., burnt. The crop of turnips
was really good. It was eaten off with sheep ; and 250 shearlings were
eight weeks upon them, besides the scraps which were eaten by ewes.
1839, barley and small seeds; produce, 35 qrs. 3 bushels, or40f- bushels
of marketable* barley per acre, weighing 16 st. 3 lbs. per sack of
4 bushels. 1840, pastured with sheep; in autumn sowed with golden-
drop wheat. 1841, wheat; produce 21 qrs. 6 bushels marketable corn,
weighing 63^ lbs. per bushel : thus making an increase in my barley
crop of 27f- bushels, and of my wheat 17|- bushels per acre, besides saving
the expense of from 12 to 16 bushels of rape-dust per acre in each
crop.

I am
Yours respectfully,
Holmefield House, Ferrybridge^ Chas. Charnock.

January 15, 1842,

Last year I tried an experiment on a dry grass-field, laying on one
acre 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda, cost 22^., and on another acre 4 qrs. of
soot, cost 16^. ; the result was very much in favour of the soot.

IT. — Improved Dibbling -Wheel.

To the Secretary.

Sir, — Having seen, in the Report of the Council Meeting on the 9th of
March, a description of a dibbling-wheel for mangel-wurzel, by William
Miles, Esq., M.P., and which consists of only "one'* wheel, I send
you a drawing of a machine which we have used for seven years, with
the greatest success, "never having lost our plant" since we used it.
It appears that the only difference between it and Mr. Miles's consists
in our using two wheels, which are placed on an axle at any distance
apart under 34 inches. Now, if only one wheel is used, and the han-
dles are fixed like a barrow, the man who uses it must of course follow
the machine and walk on the ridge, or else by the side of the wheel.

* i. e. without the small or light soilings.

164

Improved Dibbling- Wheel.

Ours having two wheels working upon two ridges (21 inches apart), the
man naturally walks in the furrow between them ; and, with a very
little practice, can use two wheels as easily as one, and of course work
two ridges at the same time.

We sow from 3 to 4 lbs. of seed per acre, which enables us to deposit
from two to four seeds in each hole, and which of course gives a better
chance of a plant than only one.

I can only add our entire concurrence in this mode of sowing that
very useful root above any other we have yet seen tried.

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

William Adams, Jun.
Great Barton., Bury St. Edmunds,
April 15, 1842.

[It might be an improvement in this implement to set the dib of one wheel opposite to the
centre of the interval in the other wheel.]

[The Dibs are 2 inches long by \\ inch wide at the base, and tapering to a point ;
and can be set 14i in., 16^ in., and 18^ in. apart.]

III. — On the Application of different Manures as a Substitute
for Bones in the Growth of Turnips.

To Henry Hand ley., Esq.

Sir, — The very high and increasing price of bones having induced me
to endeavour to discover a substitute, I send you the result of some ex-
periments made under my own superintendance this season. Soil, a
sandy loam, varying from 9 to 12 inches deep, recumbent on a lime-
stone bottom.

Manures for the Growth of Turnips. 165

The land was fallowed in the usual manner, and ploughed, on the 3rd
of June, into ridges 27 inches asunder, and the whole manured with 6
cart-loads per acre of good yard manure, made by bullocks eating oil-
cake and straw during the last winter. The ridges were then split,
rolled, and drilled with a common one-horse ridge drill, at the rate of
3 lbs. per acre, of purple-top swede and green-top yellow turnips.

The first part of them, with 6 bushels of half-inch bones and dust, at
2^. 9d. ; 4 gallons of whale-oil, at 2s. Ad. ; and about 40 bushels of
ashes, pared from the hedge-sides and burnt.

The second part, with 20 bushels of scutch, at 1.^. 6(i., and 40 of ashes.

The third, with a mixture of night-soil and cinder-ashes, worked toge-
ther till sufficiently dry to drill, 20 bushels per acre, with 40 of ashes.

The fourth, with 12 bushels of crushed oyster-shells and 6 gallons of
whale-oil, mixed, and 40 of ashes.

The fifth, with 6 gallons of oil and 40 of ashes.

The sixth, with burnt ashes only.

The first and third are decidedly the best, with no perceptible differ-
ence between them ; the fourth and fifth are equally good ; the second
and sixth are very much the worst, and very insufficient for the pur-
pose required.

I last year used 2000 bushels of bones ; upon the same number of acres
I have this year used 200 ; and, by the substitution of other manures
in lieu of bones, I have saved in the first year 125/.; and I have, in
every respect, to all appearance, as good a crop of turnips. If I have a
preference, it is in favour of the night-soil compost ; which costs, when
made thoroughly ready for use, about 5^. per ton, of 25 bushels.

I remain, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

John Marshall.
Riseholme, near Lincoln^
Oct, 29, 1841.

IV. — On the Drainage of Land.

To H. Handleij, Esq.

Sir, — In a recent article " On the Drainage of Land " published in
your Journal, no mention whatever is made of sod-draining, or of dram -
age with the mole-plough ; and thorn-draining is mentioned only inci-
dentally. These drains, though not always so permanent as tile or
stone drains, are nevertheless so much cheaper as to deserve further
notice.

Of mole-draining I have seen but little; I have never practised it
myself. I shall therefore confine my observations to thorn and sod
drains: the former of these are applicable chiefly to arable, and the
latter to grass lands. I ought to observe that my experience in draining
has been confined almost entirely to clay lands — the kind of soil to which
these drains are best suited.

166 On I he Drainage of Land,

Thorn-drains are so general!)'' known as not to need any particular
description. They are preferable to tile-drains in this respect, that,
being open on all sides to the surrounding earth, they admit the water
more freely than tiles do. Where tiles are laid in a tenacious clay, the
clay in a wet sea?on becomes so " puddled " round the tiles, as scarcely
to allow the percolation of the surrounding water. I have tile-drained
seventy acres of land, of which the subsoil was a chalkstone clay.
Stubble was laid upon the tiles. During the late wet season the water
stood in many of the furrows : the drainage was by no means good.
Wherever the furrow had in the course of successive ploughings been
carried a foot or more from the line of drain, there the water stood.
The drains were not above a foot deep, yet the water could not pene-
trate ; even where an opening was cut from the furrow to the tiles, the
water could scarcely gain admission through the intervals of the tiles, so
tightly was each interval stopped wdth clay. Very different was the
drainage of about fifty acres of much more tenacious clay w?iich had
been drained with thorns. The drainage there was perfect.

Thorn-draining has an advantage over tile-draining in point of cheap-
ness also. The comparative expense of draining an acre of land with
each kind of drain may be seen from the following estimate. The
prices of labour and of tiles are such as are usually given in this neigh-
bourhood. The quantity of stubble to be laid on the drains, and the
number of tiles required for the main drain, would be the same in each
case, and are therefore omitted : —

£. s. d. £. s. d.

1500 tiles at 305. per 1000 . . 2 5

Carriage of do., say 5^. per 1000 . 7 6

Laying and filling 20 running acres (the
running acre is 24 yards) of drains at
6rf. per acre . . . . 10

Total expense of draining an acre

with tiles 3 2 6

One load of thorns, and carriage of do. 10
Laying and filling 20 acres of thorn-
drain, at \0d. per running acre . 16 8
Additional expense of deeper main-drain 4

Total expense of drainmg an acre

with thorns 1 17

Balance in favour of thorn-drains . . . 15 6

The disadvantages of thorn-drains are, that they are not permanent ;
and that, being deeper, it is more difficult to obtain a good outfall for
them.

The duration of a good thorn-drain depends greatly on the firmness
of the soil in which it is laid. When the thorns have perished, the
superincumbent clay still forms an arch for the drain. Perhaps fifteen
years may be taken as the average duration of a thorn-drain.

On the Drainage of Land.

167

The best materials for such drains are gorse and white-thorn.* The
common hawthorn, willow tops, and other materials, are also used.
The thorns ought not to be cut till the leaf is fallen, else the dead leaves
will encumber the drain.

Sod-draining requires a more explicit description ; for, though not
unknown elsewhere, it is not, I believe, very generally practised. One
mode of sod-draining is by digging a drain about a foot wide, and then
doubling the sod into the shape of an inverted V, with the grass inwards.
The sods are then laid in the drain, resting on their edges, with the bent
middle upwards. I have known drains of this kind to last very many
years.

The more common and more effectual way of sod-draining is, how-
ever, as follows. The turf along the intended line of drain is cut with
a turfing spade into a quadrangular shape c h b' c' (fig. 1), 9 inches

c a a t

O

c c' = 9 inches.
a a^ = 3 inches.
h b' = Q inches.

a m — \ foot.
e c" = 18 inches.
€ a" = Q inches.

Earth

So/ds

Drain

Section of a sod-drain.

Longitudinal view of a sod- drain.

wide at top and 6 inches wide at bottom. Narrow wedges, acb^a' c' b',
are next cut off on each side, and thrown aside, leaving the sod about
3 inches wide on the grass side and 6 inches wide underneath. The
sods are then raised with a spade, each sod being about a foot long and
6 inches deep. The ends a b (fig. 2), &c. slanting off, so that each sod
overlaps its neighbour.

The sod having been thus removed, a "spit " of earth is taken out,
and the crumbs are removed with a common draining- scoop. Another
spit is then taken out with a narrow spade, and the loose earth is again
removed with a narrow scoop, such as is used in making thorn-drains.
The drain thus formed is wedge-shaped (see fig. 3), being about 18
inches deep, about 9 inches wide at top, and scarcely an inch wide at
bottom. The depth and width of course vary a little, if the level of the
surface requires it. In this respect sod-drains have an advantage over
mole-drains, which must be parallel to the level of the surface. They
may therefore be carried over ridges and other inequalities where the
mole-plough would be unavailable.

The sod is next placed in the drain with the grass-side downwards,

Alder is very durable ; heath and black -thorn probably the most durable of all.

168 On the Drainage of Land.

each sod lapping over the end of its neighbour (see fig. 4), and the drain
is filled up with earth. The sod, if carefully cut, fits closely into the
drain. It will bear a great weight: indeed the greater the weight upon
it the more closely it is wedged down against the sloping sides of the
drain. In this respect our drains seem to be superior to those made
with ledges or shoulders to support the sod ; for in such drains the
weight rests chiefly upon two points, whereas in our wedge-shaped drains
the whole of each side shares in the pressure.

Where the soil is tender, the drain is made a little larger, and a larger
sod is filled in ; or a few thorns are placed in the drain to support the
tender earth. In sand or gravel-beds, or other very bad places, it is well
to lay tiles as far as the soft soil extends. In very wet furrows it is
well to cut the drain a little on one side of the furrow, for both the soil
and the sod are generally sounder there.

Drains of this kind, if carefully made, last many years. In the only
case in which I have known well-made sod-drains require to be renewed,
they had lasted about twenty years. In cutting ditches, sewers, &c., I
have lately fallen in with sod-drains considerably more than twenty years
old, which were as sound as when they were first made. The usual price
per acre (of 24 running yards) for making sod-drains is 10c/., and \s. per
running acre for the main-drains. Where the soil is stony I have
given as much as 1,?. per acre for the sod -drains, and 1^. 6d. for the
main-drains. In counties where labour is cheap the expense would pro-
bably be less.

The expense of draining an acre of land with sods may be estimated
as follows : —

20 running acres of sod-drain, at 10c?. per acre
Tiles for main drain, say .....
Laying do. at 1.^. per 24 yards, say

Total expense of sod-draining an acre of land . 18 6

No stubble or other material is required to lay upon the drains. Ac-
cording to this estimate the expense of draining with sods is less than a
third of the expense of draining with tiles. Supposing sod-drains to last
twenty years, the interest of the money saved by substituting sod-drains
for tile-drains will more than pay the expense of renewing the sod-drains
ad wfiniium.

I have drained between sixty and seventy acres with sod-drains, and
so well am I satisfied with them, that I intend to drain about as much
more in the same way.

I am, Sir,
Your obedient servant,

H. H. Brown.
Heckington, Feb. 23, 1842.

Note — I drained some clay land in the year 1814 in this way, and very little of it
has required to be renewed. — Spencer.

s.

d.

16

8

1

4

6

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND,

VOLUME THE THIRD.
1842.

PARTS n,— HI.:

COMPLETING THE V O L U Jil E.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LONDON:

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

MDCCCXLir.

TBEUE experiments, it is true, are not easy ; STILL THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY
THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE V.TIO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REIORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE
OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREnV A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE
WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT
BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE
SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF THESE
AMONG THEIR MEMBERS.

Von Thaer, Principles of /Igriculture.

London: Friuti-d by ^VIELIAM Ci.owrs aiui Sons, Statufjid Stii-et.

CONTENTS OF PARTS II.— III., VOLUME III.

ARTICLE ^^«^

XIII.— On the Progress of Agricultural Knowledge during the

last Four Years. By Ph. Pusey, M.P., F.R. and G.S. 169
XIV.— Account of the Meeting of German Landowners in 1841.

By Henry Handley 217

XV.— On the Marling of a Light Sandy Soil on the Duke of

Bedford's Farm at Woburn. By Charles Burness . 233

XVI.— On Claying or Marling Land. By F. W. Overman . 234

XVII.— Early Vetches. By William Jones Williams . . 230

XVIII.— On the Cultivation of Lucerne. By Joshua Rodwell . 238

XIX.— Agriculture of the Netherlands. Part II. By the Rev.

W. L. Rham 240

XX.— On the Planting and Management of Forest- Trees. By

Charles Falkner 2^3

XXL— On Wheat. By C. Hillyard, of Thorpelands, near

Northampton . . . • • • .297

XXII.—Observations on the Natural History and Economy of
various Insects affecting the Turnip Crops, mcludmg
the White Cabbage-Butterllies, the Turnip-seed Weevil,
&c. By John Curtis, F.L.S., Corresponding Member
of the Imperial and Royal Georgofili Society of

Florence, &c. 306

XXIIL— On the Use of Burnt Clay as a Manure for Heavy Clay

Soils. By Francis Pym 323

XXIV.— On the Failure of the Red Clover. By the Rev. W.

Thorp 326

XXV.—On Measuring Cattle. By C. Hillyard, of Thorpelands,

near Northampton . . . . • • .337

XXVI.— Report on the Exhibition of Implements at the Bristol

Meeting in 1842 338

XXVIL— On the Public Institutions for the Advancement of Agri-
cultural Science which exist in other Countries, and on
the Plans which have been set on foot by Individuals
with a similar intent in our own. By Charles Daubeny,
M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Rural Economy in the Uni-
versity of Oxford 364

XXVIIL— On the Dyock Oat. By the Rev. R. W. Fisher . .387
XXIX.— Report on the Wheats selected for Trial at Cambridge,

and on other Wheats. By W. Miles, M.P. . . 391

XXX.— Report on Prize-Wheats. By G. Kimberley . . . 395

XXXI.— Report on Prize-Wheats. By H. Handley . . . o^^^l

IV

CONTENTS.

XXXII —Account of Mr. Irving's New Machine for Constructing

Tiles. By W. Ford 398

XXXIII. — Agricultural Tour in Denmark, Sweden, and Russia. By

James F. W. Johnston, F.R.S 400

Miscellaneous Communications and Notices : —

v.— Account of Experiments on the Growth of Swedes ' . 423
VI.— On the Application of Clay to Moor-Land . . .427

VII. — Simple and Effectual Method of destroying Rats and

Mice 428

VIII.— On the Use of Lime 429

IX. -On the Feeding of Stock 430

X.— On the Chemical Constituents of Crops . . . 433
XL— On the Quantity of Minute Ingredients of Soil contained

in an Acre of Land 434

XII. — Experiments with Guano 437

XUL— New and Economical Oil-Cake 439

APPENDIX :

Council and Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England

Honorary Members

Report of the Council to the Anniversary Meeting . ,

General Meetings of 1842-3

Statement of Accounts from July to December, 1841

Award of Prizes at the Meeting at Bristol ....

Prizes for the Meeting at Derby

Prizes and Conditions for Essays and Reports on various subjects

XV

xvi

xvii
xxiii
xxiv

XXV

xxxii
XXXV i

LIST OF PLATES.

Plate I. to face page
II. „

321
322

Title-page and general Contents of Vol. III.

ERRATA.

■

Part I.

Ill Mr. Murcliisou's paper, p. 130, line 21, for "hectares"' read "hectolitres."

Parts II.— III.

lu Mr. Pusey's paper, p. 185, line 10,/o/' " 36*." read " 51s.''

( 169 )

XIII. — 0)1 the Progress of Agricultural Knowledge durhig the
last Four Years. By Ph. Pusey, M.P., F.R. and G.S.

As four years have passed since our Society was founded for
extending the knowledge and improving the practice of hus-
bandry, it may not be useless now to inquire how far, if at all,
its working has hitherto carried out the views of our founders.
Though we could not be fairly required to have done much in
so short a time, we certainly ought to have done something,
strengthened as we have been by the hearty aid of the English
farmers. We should be encouraged, I think, by knowing what
we have done, if, indeed, we have succeeded in anything; we
shall be more likely to advance farther, if we look at the diffi-
culties we still have to deal with ; and the best encouragement,
perhaps, for active men, is the knowledge that they have yet a
great deal to do. The extension of science may, however, mean
two different things, either the spread of existing knowledge
among a wider number of persons — and this is a most important
object in our department ; for if the best practice of each different
district could become general in the country, a very great im-
provement in farming would at once be effected — or it may
mean the discovery of principles hitherto entirely unknown.
In examining how far we have advanced in either way the know-
ledge of farming, it may be convenient to begin with the soil
itself, proceeding afterwards from tillage and seed-time to har-
vest; and as no soil, however good, can yield what it ought while
it is drenched with water, we must first consider drainage.

It is only seven years since we heard in England, chiefly
through the present Speaker of the House of Commons, that a ma-
nufacturer in Scotland, now well known as Mr. Smith of Deanston,
had found the means of making all land, however wet and poor
it might be, warm, sound, and fertile, and that this change was
brought about by two processes, thorough-draining and subsoil-
ploughing. PI is rule of draining was this : that we are not to endea-
vour merely to find out hidden springs, and to cut them through
by a single drain, which in some of our books appeared to be re-
garded as all that was necessary; but that, as the whole surface of
retentive soils is rendered wet, not by accidental springs, but by
the rain, the whole surface of the field must be made thoroughly
dry by under-drains, running throughout at equal distances ; any
field, he said, however wet, might be so dried, provided these under-
drains were cut sufficiently near to each other. This was the prin-
ciple of Thorough or Frequent Draining asserted by Mr. Smith
of Deanston in 1 835 ; and this principle, which was then new
and startling, may now be regarded as firmly established. But
though it was then so novels I have discovered accidentally that
it has been long practised to its fullest extent in one part of

VOL. III. N

170 Progress of Agricnltvrnl Kvowlechjp

England. I do not speak of furrow-draining, which was well
known in many districts, for the drains were not generally so deep
nor so numerous as they are on the Deanston system. But an old
drill-man from Suffolk having observed to me, that if he were
the tenant of a strong clay farm in this neighbourhood, he
should drain the whole of it with drains cut 12 feet apart and
3 feet in depth, I was struck with this remark of an old man
who had never read the new system of drainage, yet described it
as carried to its utmost extent, for drains could scarcely be cut
nearer or deeper. He told me, on being further questioned, that
it was the method which he had seen as a boy at his native place.
Mr. Allan Ransome, at my request, inquired into the matter, and
informs me that forty years ago three properties, one of them
Lord Huntingfield's, near Yoxford, in Suffolk, were drained
in this manner. I have reason to believe that the same effectual
mode of draining has long been practised in Essex, so much so
as" to be called the Essex system even in Scotland. Now, in
proving that Mr. Smith's system is not new, I do not lower his
claims to our thanks, for he probably invented it also, and at
all events carried it out with an energy which made it new in
his hands; but I think the fact of its previous practice in Suffolk
and Essex worth notice for two reasons : one, that any new
method, however highly recommended, must be received with
doubt as long as it continues new, and that consequently the best
praise by which any method can be recommended to practical
farmers is, not that it is new, but on the contrary that it is old
and tried ; the other reason is this, that here was a plan of drain-
age which was regarded as novel, yet had been employed and esta-
blished for half a century at no great distance from London ;
and this is by no means a singular proof how little the farmers
in one part of England knew, until lately, what the others were
doing.

All, however, who are at all acquainted with improved
husbandry are now agreed that on wet land thorough-drain-
ing is to a farm what a foundation is to a house. There is no
doubt now what ought to be done ; the difficulty is to find
means for doing it, since one-third of England, I believe, re-
quires to be drained. It would be easy to bring forward in-
stances of great profit resulting from drainage ; and I may refer
to the accounts of Sir James Graham's operations at Netherby,'"^'
and of Lord Hatherton'sf at Teddesley, where the water which
gushes out of the underground drains is thrown over a water-wheel,
threshes the corn, and does the other work of the barn ; still great
returns cannot be held out in all cases, yet every wet farm ought to
be drained. But the advantage of draining is not to be measured

* Journal, vol. i. p. 32.
t Ibid., vol. ii. p. 273, on the Drainage of Land : by J. F. Burke.

during the last Foitr Years. 171

merely by the additional bushels of corn that may be grown on an
acre ; though I believe five or six bushels of wheat per acre would
be a fair estimate of the increase ; for such land is usually thrown
up into very narrow ridges, perhaps 10 feet wide, and no corn grows
in the bare furrow ; so that one-tenth of the land is lost altogether ;
the lower half of the ridge, too, on each side of the furrow bears
often only straggling ears ; long tracts of such fields must have
been seen between Birmingham and Liverpool last year by many
of our members ; and it may be useful for landowners to know
that every arable field which is laid up in ridges probably requires
more or less to be drained; in fact these deep furrows were
devised by our ancestors for drying the ridges piled up between
them. An intrinsic advantage, however, of draining is this,
that the character of the farm is changed. It is difiicult to obtain
a good tenant for a cold clay farm ; and I am inclined to think that
some of these farms have gone backwards in the last fifty years.
On two such farms, now in wretched condition, I found it was in the
memory of living persons that they had once borne far better crops.
No long time ago it was the clay lands that fed the country; but
since the great change effected in light-land farming by turnip
husbandry, every farmer wishes to occupy what is called a stock-
farm, a farm where he can fold his sheep on the land at all
seasons, consequently the clay-farms have become less and less
popular; and, in some cases, have fallen into inferior hands."''
Nor can we be surprised at the unpopularity of a wet farm_, for
its discomforts are endless, as well as its losses. The acts of hus-
bandry are at all times liable to interruption by excess of rain.
The farm.er does not know when he can plough or sow ; often
his teams cannot go on the land ; so that the work to be done

* A main reason why clay-farms have, to a considerable extent, fallen
into *' inferior hands" is the circumstance that they are the only farms which,
from the moderate outlay required to enter, come within the reach of a cer-
tain class. If, for instance, a farming servant or cottager, either by mar-
riage, bequest, or a long course of industry, shall have become possessed of
a few hundred pounds, and desire to be himself an occupier, he is debarred
from entering upon a grazing, a mixed, or a con-vertible farm, by the capital
necessary to purchase stock or artificial manures ; but for a small clay-farm
a team of horses and a few implements are alone essential. He ploughs,
sows, and reaps, and converts his straw into what he calls manure by the
mouths and feet of a few starved calves or yearlings, mainly aided by the
winter rains, and then carts it on his land, little better than rotted straw.
No wonder the condition of small clay-farms should be low. Yet, however
disagreeable the enumerated drawbacks to a clay-farm, and I admit they
are many, there is none more gratefid for capital expended, either in drain-
ing or manure. Once drained, the art of clay-farming consists in the art of
ploughing, and the art of making manure. If, on the one hand, the clays
could advantageously spare their superfluous moisture to the thirsty, gra-
velly, or sandy soils, on the other hand, they do not burn, like these, under
a summer sun, and at all events carefully retain, until required by the crop,
whatever manure is put into them.— H. Handley,

n2

172 Progress of Agricultural Knowledge

accumulates ; yet when the favourable moment arrives, in which
all the work must be done at once, he requires more horses for
each plough than the light-land farmer, while he has less time
for doing that work. In a wet autumn he must sow his wheat
too late ; perhaps not sow it at all. If he does sow wheat, and
the rain continues, the seed sometimes rots in the ground ; or if
it has come up well, winter soaks the hollows thoroughly, if it
does not fill them with standing water ; and in spring, on each
side of the furrow, large blanks are seen in the crop.*

In fact a perpetual struggle is going on between the plough-
man with his horses on one side, who endeavours to reduce this
stubborn clay into mould, and the rains which render it solid again.
There are some such farms, so hard in dry weather, so tough in
their best state of moderate moisture, so deep and impassable in
wet winters, so cold and backward in spring — I have one such
farm myself — that farmers who are accustomed to warm, sound
land, fit at all times for stock and for labour, say they would not
occupy such ground free of rent. No one who knows the effect
of thorough-draining can see without regret such farms, and the
starveling crops which they bear. If the occupier be a bad
farmer, his own circumstances are probably in proportion to the
poverty of his land ; if a good one, half his exertions are lost, and
he does not obtain the fair reward of his industry and enterprise.
If I were a working- farmer, nothing would induce me to enter
on a cold wet farm, unless there were a fair prospect of its being
drained, either with my own money under a long lease, or with
the aid of my landlord. Our Society has wisely abstained from
entering into questions between landlords and tenants ; and I will
therefore merely mention that sometimes in Scotland, on a lease
for nineteen years, the tenant pays for the draining himself; some-
times the landlord finds materials, and the tenant the labour, or
the landlord pays for the whole, receiving interest for his outlay.
The landlord, however, may not find it convenient to make heavy
advances over a large property ; but, as Lord Stanley recom-
mended, he may borrow the money for such a purpose. In dis-
tricts, indeed, where under-draining is still unknown, the tenant
may not be aware of its advantage, and therefore may not meet
his views. In that case a few fields may be drained at first, in
order to prove the advantage ; or if a poor wet farm should fall in,
it may be taken in hand and reclaimed, which is mora useful and

* I have also heard from a farmer on a very stiff clay that the wetter the
winter the more rain is required on such land by the wheat in the following
summer, the more consequently it suffers in a season of drought. The rea-
son, I think, must be this, that the water lodged in winter condenses the
soil, destroying the looseness which the plough had produced in it, and thus
rendering it when dry once more a close clay, through which the roots of the
plant cannot make their way, and which moderate summer rains cannot
penetrate ; but this is not generally applicable to clay lands.

durm<y the last Four Years. 173

o

more interesting for a country gentleman than to occupy a farm
ready made to his hands because it is the one nearest his dwelling.
I am sure a strenuous effort ought to be made for attaining this
object. All cannot be done at once ; but injustice to our tenants,
we ought to begin in earnest, not regarding with indifference farms
poached with watei', but considering the want of drainage on any
part of our property as a defect, and in some degree a discredit.
Every land-steward should survey his employer's estate with this
special view, lay the result before his employer, and suggest matured
plans for drying the soil.

The best materials for draining are tiles : indeed, where the
fall is slight, the water does not flow through broken stones ; and
if the stones must be brought from a distance, the labour of
drawing them is too heavy. Hitherto, however, the cost of tiles
has been a great check to their employment ; but two years ago
we discovered that while 406"., 50.y., and even 606". per thousand
were paid for tiles in the south of England, Mr. Beart, of God-
manchester, five years before had invented a simple machine by
which he had reduced the price of tiles from 406'. to 22s. through-
out Huntingdonshire. His statement was as follows : —

'* The price of furrow-draining tiles has fluctuated here from 20?. to
22s. per 1000 : at these reduced prices the consumption of tiles has in-
creased greatly. As a proof of that increased consumption, and of the
great quantity manufactured, it was publicly stated at a late meeting of
agriculturists at Huntingdon, that one tenant-farmer last year consumed
520,000 draining-tiles. I wish to point out to tile-makers, that whether
the making of draining-tiles be performed by machinery or by hand-
labour only, they may be made at prices much below what they now
cost in many parts of the country, and thus enable the makers so to
reduce the price of tiles that the consumption will augment as it has in
this county. Though the profit on a single thousand of tiles will be
less, still the quantity they would sell would be so increased that the
profits of their works would be larger. By the introduction of machi-
nery, which led to the change of system in this county, a reduction of
15^. per 1000 was effected in one season, and during the las I Jive years
the number of tile-works has been doubled.'''' *

The price of tiles depends partly on that of the coals used in
burning them. Mr. Beart states that in Huntingdonshire, where
coals cost 23s. per ton, tiles are sold for 22s. ; and that with one
ton of coals he burns 3500 tiles. Where coals then cost 16.9.,
tiles would cost 20s. ; and where 376., 265. per thousand. At
our Bristol meeting a new tile-machine was shown by Mr. Irving;
it is praised by our Judges, and described in this Journal by
Mr. Ford, whose estimate of the cost of labour in tile-making
agrees closely with Mr. Beart's. Lord Tweeddale's most inge-
nious machine is also now reduced in size, so as to be worked by

* See account of Mr. Beart's machine, Journal, vok ii. p. 93.

1 74 Progress of Agricultural Knoicledge

liand-labour. Those who wish to make tiles will determine for
themselves which is the best. Mr. Burke entertains, and has ex-
pressed in a note/' a decided opinion; but I need not enter into

* The owners of all tile-machines severally profess theirs to be the best.
I am not personally interested in any of them ; but having written on the
subject, and not only made anxious inquiries regarding it, but also practi-
cally examined several of the tiles in different parts of the kingdom, I une-
quivocally state that those made under the Tweeddale patent are superior
to all others ; for they are made at one operation, by the uniform power of
machinery, the compression of which renders them more sohd, and conse-
quently more durable, than those made by hand. In saying this, I have no
wish to detract from the merit of Beart's invention ; but the so-called
*' machine^'' though useful in the preparation of the clay, is, in fact, a mere
tool^ and goes no farther ; the tile being actually made, as in every other
case (except the Tweeddale), entirely by hand. In comparing the price of
tiles and soles, the length is seldom named, and they are usually not longer
than 12 inches: now the Tweeddale tiles are fifteen inches ; wherefore, the
number required by Beart's tiles, at the closest distance of drainage, is
2440, whilst those of the Tweeddale patent would only be 1952. The price
of the latter, as I learn from the patentees, varies, according to the price of
coals, from 25^. to 45*. per thousand. The cost of draining an acre could,
therefore, never be much more than that of Beart's, while the difference,
both in quahty, labour in laying down, and real usefulness, would be still
greater than in quantity.

It is false economy to drain land with inferior tiles. They may suit the
object of a tenant who looks only to the duration of his lease*; but the
owner of the soil, who has at heart his own interest and that of his heirs,
should see that the work is done in the most substantial and imperishable
manner. The saving of a few shillings in the price of the tiles is to him,
therefore, not worth consideration ; and I should imagine that landlords
and trustees, when raising money for that purpose under the Drainage Act,
will be compelled by the Court of Chancery to use the most efficient means
in their power. The subjoined letter from the agent to the Tweeddale pa-
tentees will afford all the necessary inform^ation regarding the price and
formation of their tiles. — J. French Burke.

*' I understand that you want some information in regard to the improve-
ments recently patented in the Tweeddale drain-tile and brick machinery,
and as those additions are of very great importance to agriculturists, as well
as to the trade, I have much pleasure in complying with your wish.

" The Tweeddale machinery, in its original state, was intended to perform
several functions in the manufacture of bricks and tiles beyond what were
absolutely necessary in most cases. In consideration of those objects it was
indispensable to employ great 'power to work the machines, and the expense
was consequently, perhaps, too heavy for general adoption. On this account
the Company instituted a series of experiments, and at much outlay have
effected the important result of, — 1st, a considerable reduction in the price
of the machinery ; 2nd, a vast abatement in the patent dues on seignorage ;
and, 3rd, a diminution of power from that of horses down to the labour of
one man, or even a boy. Hence I can confidently assure you that, in the
essential points of quantiiy, quaJHy, and cheapness (length for length), it is
utterly impossible for any other existing machine to compete fairly and
successfully with those of this Company. Among other advantages, I would
beg leave to mention that our machinery, as now arranged, may be pro-
fitably adapted to the very smallest establishm.ent ; that it may be worked
by one person as easily as a grindstone ; that it is portable ; and that bricks
and tiles, of the best kind, can be produced by ordinary labourers and boys.

during the last Four Years: 175

that question. Whichever of the three be the best machine now,
there is no doubt that, seven years ago, Mr. Beart greatly reduced
the price of tiles in Huntingdonshire. Here we then paid 50^.,
and even 60s., for tiles ; there Mr. Beart sold tiles of the same
length (1 foot) and the same quality for 226'. : here soles, one of
which is required with every tile, cost 30s. ; there, from 8^. to 10s.
So that, in fact, for the same sum which the soles alone cost us
here, the Huntingdonshire farmer obtained the tiles into the bar-
gain. Yet the price of coals would justify a difference of l^*. only.
If the Huntingdonshire scale could be made universal, the highest
price of one-foot tiles would be notGO^*., but 27s. per 1000: and
what has been done in that county for seven years, being now
known, ought to be imitated. Indeed, if a landowner have a kiln
of his own, he may make tiles, as Mr. Beart does, for 15s. per
1000 : the machine costs only 12^., and can be used by a common
labourer ; as doubtless can Lord Tweeddale's and Mr. Irving's.
1 will only add a short estimate of the expense of tile-draining on
the Huntingdonshire scale of prices, — in a district where coals
cost 16s., and tiles would sell, consequently, at 20^"., soles at 10^.
Those who know the necessity for draining wet land, the difficulty
of defraying the expense where hundreds or thousands of acres
require to be drained, and consequently the importance of saving
4/. or 5/. per acre in making land dry, will agree, I think, that if

You are probably aware that tiles and soles, of 10 and 12 inches in length,
are often named in comparison of price with ours, which are not only 15
inches long, but also of very superior quality. It may indeed be some evi-
dence of their estimation in the agricultural world to state that we have this
year made upivards of 20 millions of draininy -tiles and soles.

" I beg to enclose for your attention a short account of our machines, and
the rates of seignorage for their use. I shall have much pleasure in showing
the hand-machines at work to you or your friends at any time, and to give
any information as to the cost of working them. I wish it to be understood
that we find no fault with any other tile-machine, but claim only for our
own that superiority which we are certain it deserves. The very great dura-
bility of our tiles, arising from the compression employed in their manufac-
ture, may be the more readily understood by comparing the weight of the
common tile with those made with the aid of the pressure we employ. It
will be found that common tiles weigh about 35 cwt. per 1000 ; while those
made by us will weigh about 45 cwt. per 1000. The price of a hand tile-
machine is 45/. ; and with it two men and one boy can easily make 500
perfectly-formed draining-tiles, 15 inches long, per hour.

" The following are the rates of seignorage charged to licencees : —

Per 1000.
s. d.
On any number up to 100,000, made in any one season . 1
On air beyond the first 100,000 up to 150,000, made in

the same season . . . . . .011

On all beyond the first 150,000 up to 200,000, made in

the same season . . . . . .0 10

On all beyond 200,000, made in the same season . .09

On soles for draining-tiles . . one half the above rates."

176

Progress of jigrirnUural Knowledge

the manufacturers remember the names of men wlio liave im-
proved their machinery, Hargreaves or Arkwright — even though
their inventions may have been long superseded — we must not for-
get what we owe Mr. Beart for his, which is still producing tiles
at half cost. The fourth column shows the outlay required for
tiles at the high standard — 50.5". for tiles, and 30.v. for soles.

Cost of Tnoi

ough-Dkaining One

Acre at Hu

VTINGDONSHIKE

Pkices.

* Distance

Length of

Number

Cost of Tiles

Redncea

Cost of making

Total

between

Drains

of

and Soles at

Cost of Tiles

Drains at 3id.

Reduced Cost

Drains.

iu 1 Acre.

Tiles.

high prices.

and Soles.

per Pole.

per Acre.

Feet.

Furlongs.

s.

s.

if. d.

£. s. d.

66

1

660

53

20

11 8

1 11 4

4i

u

990

.^0

30

17 6

2 7 6

33

2

1320

106

40

23 4

3 3 4

22

3

19S0

160

60

35

4 15

161

4

2()40

213

80

46 8

6 8

At this reduced price of tiles the cost of thorough-drainage
certainly no longer appears formidable, for the greater portion of
our land which requires to be drained would be laid sufficiently
dry by drains cut at intervals of 44, 33, and 22 feet. I know
many farms, the whole character and management of which
would be permanently changed by drains cut at 33 feet apart ;
this could be done for the very moderate cost of 3/. 3^. per acre.
The greatest number of drains that can usually occur (16^ feet
interval, or 4 furlongs per acre) cost only 6/. 6s. I must admit,
however, that on very strong land it may be necessary to fill in
with stones over the tiles, which raises the cost of workmanship
from 3|c?. to 6cZ. per pole, that is, from X\s. Sd. to 1/. per furlong.
But, if the ground be sloping, broken stones may be used alone,
where they are to be found near at hand. In many districts flat
stones are common, which may be set upright in the drain, so as
to give the same free current as tiles, Avithout their expense. Mr.
Holcomb states that he has used mere wedges of peat,y which cost
only 6^". per thousand, as substitutes for tiles. The Duke of Rich-

* This calculation has been made by ascertaining the expense of cutting
one drain of 40 poles in length ; the price of labour being usually calculated
per pole : and 40 poles, or 1 furlong, are the length of an acre when the breadth
is 06 feet. If the price of labour or the cost of tiles be higher than is rated
in the table, an addition must of course be made to the estimate for the
single furlong ; but when the cost of one furlong is ascertained, the expense
of draining at the different distances is easily seen. — For more detailed
calculations see Mr. Stephens's ' Book of the Farm,' chap. 28. Some addi-
tion may be required for breakage and for main drains. The carriage of
the tiles is not included because it is not considerable, and would therefore
be done by the ordinary horses of the farm.

t Mr. Pym, however, has found that some peat drains he has made in
Bedfordshire have fallen in. The field is subject to floods, which had backed
up in the drains.

during the last Four Years. 177

moncl has also applied peat, cut into the circular shape of tiles, for
the same purpose. There is a method of draining; grass-land called
wedge or sod draining, fully described by Mr. Handley Brown in
our last Number ; in which the roof of the drain is supported by a
mere wedge of the natural turf. It is exceedingly cheap, costing
in Lincolnshire only 18s. 6cL per acre, at an interval of about SO
feet. I think it must require a strong clay subsoil, as a weak
clay would hardly maintain an open passage, but would probably
silt in. It is, I believe, an old practice in North Wiltshire,
where such drains are executed at a depth of 20 inches for 9^. or
lOs. the furlong, so that grass-land is there drained at the very
narrow interval of 16 J feet for the trifling expense of 21. per acre.
Mr. Brown advocates the use of these thorn-drains on arable
land also, and states that he has known them draw well where
the water has lain over tile-drains. But in thorn-draining-, sooner
or later, the whole work must be done again. Tile-drains are
made once for ever, since any occasional repairs would fall into
the common management of the farm. His statement, however,
that tile-drains will not draw on his land, deserves great attention.
I have seen the same failure here in drains only 20 inches deep,
on some very strong land ; but the clay from the subsoil had been
thrown back on the tiles in these drains. In the next field,
though the drains were 30 inches deep, yet being covered slightly
with stones, and filled in with surface mould, they ran well even
after one strong summer rain. Some high authorities tell us
that the clay should be pressed down on the tile, and that no
water should penetrate the drain from above ; but I must say on
this much-argued question,, that practice, I think, is against them.
Still Mr. Brown is no doubt right in saying that there is some
land in England so extremely retentive of water, that there may
be a doubt whether it can be drained with tiles ; and as it is on
such land that the expense of tiles is heavy, from the necessary
nearness of the drains, it may be well to use the old system of
filling with thorns as has been long practised in Suffolk. There
the drains are cut to the full depth of 30 inches, a narrow open
channel being left at the bottom in the solid clay, a twisted rope of
straw forming the roof with thorns or heath over it. This system
has been found to answer; and indeed on the strongest clays ap-
pears to afford more certainty that the drains will run than the
new plan of tile-draining. They last sixteen years, and may be
completed for lO^-. a furlong, so that 6 furlongs of drains may be
allowed to the acre — that is, the drains may be placed so near as
even 11 feet to each other — for the trifling expense of 3/. It
appears to me a fortunate circumstance that on those very heavy
soils where on the one hand the great number of drains which is ne-
cessary might raise the expense of even cheap tiles beyond ordinary
means, and on the other hand there is some doubt whether tiles

178 Progress of Agricullural Knowledge

will draw off the water, we slioukl fintl an old established method
of draining, which certainly does draw off the water, which is
suited particularly to stiff clays, because the stiffer the clay the
longer will an open channel underground remain open, and
which is so cheap as to bring our estimates once more within a
moderate compass. On such land, therefore, I should recom-
mend thorn or wedge draining, because I think many more farms
will be drained at 3/. than at 10/. per acre. The drain, I am
told, is placed by the side of the furrow, not under it, and is
not trodden in, as we might fear, on arable land. Not only,
however, do tiles and stones fail to act on some very heavy
land, but on such land, if under grass, I have been told that
drainage when it has acted has even been found injurious ;
and I mention this because we ought not to shut our eyes to
objections, and because nothing I believe has more checked the
advance of farming than the unwillingness of eager improvers to
admit that their remedies can in any single instance be found to
fail. Still, with regard to draining, the exceptions, if any, can be
but few. Those large tracts of the country which require
drainage can generally be drained easily, and our Society has done
a great service to the country by making known the means of drain-
ing them with the best and most lasting materials, according to
the Huntingdonshire method, cheaply. Further reductions of
price I know are in progress. If Lord J. Hay should perfect
his invention of concrete draining-tiles, another large saving may
be effected. But 1 trust that the coming winter will not pass by
without a vigorous commencement of under-draining throughout
the country ; for besides the benefit tp the farm, draining in its
execution, of course, gives great employment to the labourers,
who may this year be in much want of employment ; and even
beyond this temporary relief, every landowner who drains and
then breaks up with the plough '25 or 30 acres of indifferent
pasture, provides employment throughout future years for an addi-
tional family. Notwithstanding the covenants in old leases, I
believe that on many farms weak pastures not worth more than
20s. an acre might be so broken up after drainage, with advantage
to both owner and occupier, and that many village families
might be so founded.* At all events, the necessity of draining is
so certain that within the next ten years a large part of England

* There are also thousands of acres, perhaps millions, that are at present
worse than lying waste, causing whole districts to be unhealthy to rnan
and beast, acres that will not support a goose, or at best a sheep, per acre ;
some let to farmers at from 25. 6d. to 5s. per acre, all of which, with little
exception, if properly drained and well cultivated in a regular course of
alternate husbandry, would increase in value from 150 to 300 per cent.,
forward the harvest from 14 to 20 days, improve the climate of the country,
and add to the produce in a direct ratio to the higher value of the land. —
Geo. Kimberley.

during the last Four Years. 179

will probably be thorough- drained, and at no distant day a soaked
field will be as little tolerated as ruined barns or foul crops ; but
I am anxious to see a great exertion made at once for this national
object, and, if I have dwelt too long on the matter, my excuse
must be this, — that it is vain to speak of good farming until we
have land which deserves to be farmed well. There can be no
profit in farming highly land on which stock does not thrive, and
on which half the crop may be drowned by one rainy week : wet
land is well adapted for slovenly husbandry.

Before we leave wet land I ought to say one word on subsoil-
ploughing, but the accounts of its effects are as yet contradictory.
It does not appear to suit very light soils, as it makes them too
loose, unless indeed there be a retentive subsoil under them, near
the surface ; nor very strong clays,"^ since these run together again.
As it should only be done after draining, we can scarcely ascertain
which of the two operations has produced any improvement that
may have arisen. It seems, however, to do most good where the
subsoil is a mixture of rubble and clay ; and 1 have heard of one farm
of that nature, near Taunton, which had been thorough-drained
without benefit, but on which the subsoil-plough produced a large
immediate increase of crop. This was a red clay, and it was on a
red clay also that Mr. Thompsony found subsoiling to have answered
in Yorkshire. It appears to answer best on those parts of the
country, the northern and western, where most rain usually falls.
1 would try it, however, after draining on any strong land ; but
the original plough seems to me too bulky in its underground
parts, as the thick iron sole on which it rests can only be forced
through the land by great .exertion of the cattle. J The imple-
ment shown by Mr. Nugent at Bristol must stir the land as tho-
roughly with its thin deep tines or teeth fixed in a framework
above ground. Where the subsoil is very stony a single tine will
move it thoroughly. Subsoil-ploughing, however, should be tried
cautiously, as in two instances — one a farm near Exmoor, in
Somersetshire, where the subsoil is a wet blue slate ; the other

* There is great ambiguity in the term clay, as used in different districts :
sometimes, when a clay is said to have been reduced to mould by subsoil-
ploughing, it turns out to be what those who live upon a strong clay
would not consider a clay. A really strong clay when dry has no rough-
ness or grittiness which show the presence of sand, but is smooth like
soap, though extremely hard and diflicult to break with the hand. If it
contain lime it is marl.

t Journal, vol. ii. p. 30.

% See the Report of the Judges of Implements. The mechanical con-
struction of this ingenious invention will be improved, I believe, at Lord
Ducie's Iron-works. Mr. Gabell, of Crickhowell, works his single-tine sub-
soil-plough 18 inches deep with two horses. — Journal, vol. ii. p. 421. I have
also found my own answer the purpose.— Ibid., i. 433.

180 Progress of Agricultural Knoivlcdgo

a farm also with a stony subsoil — it did permanent mischief.
The trial, however, can be easily made, as many common ploughs,
if the mouldboard be removed, will serve as well as one made for
the purpose. Altogether, though we must not speak too confi-
dently of subsoil-ploughing, I cannot but hope that we shall pro-
bably have to thank Mr. Smith of Deanston for this invention, as
well as for the zeal and ability by which he has succeeded in re-
storing the ancient English practice of thorough-draining.

Hitherto we have considered only one defect of land — too great
cohesiveness, and consequent retention of too much moisture.
There is an opposite fault, however, well known to farmers — too
great looseness. This fault may be seen on tracts absolutely
barren, as on Bagshot Heath, or on fields under culture, which

are termed blowino: sands, because the surface-sand drifts in lii^h

. . . ~

winds. In different degrees it is a common fault in land, and

shows itself by thinness of the corn-crop, shortness of the straw
and of the ear. Formerly, indeed, rye was grown on such land
instead of w'heat. Folding with sheep, pressing and shallow
ploughing, diminish the evil, but do not remedy it. The practice
of our ancestors was to cover such land with marl, which is
usually a strong clay, containing a great deal of lime. Marl was
said indeed to benefit the land at first, but to injure it afterwards —
to be ''good for the father, but bad for the son," This injury,
however, arose, I believe, from improvidence ; marl w^as found to
act without dung at first, and the fields which had been marled
were consequently tilled without dung until their soil was com-
pletely exhausted. It fell into disrepute, and many farmers are
perhaps not aware that it is still used largely in England. I
have been surprised to find, in the successive numbers of our
Journal, how often it is mentioned casually by members of our
Society. To take first the most striking example : the improve-
ment of the late Lord Leicester's property, as described by Lord
Spencer.* I doubt if that lamented nobleman, with all his enter-
prise, could have fed oxen where rabbits had previously browsed,
as was his just boast, unless those sandy commons had first been
made solid with marl. It is used also largely in Bedfordshire on a
yellow sand about Woburn.f The practice is general, I believe,
in Norfolk, and also in Suffolk, where, at some recent agricultural
meeting, a prize was given to the farmer who had drawn the largest
quantity in one year — and that quantity, if I am not mistaken, was
10,000 cart-loads. It is mentioned by Mr. DugdaleJ as existing
in Warwickshire ; and we have a very good account of an entire
farm which had been marled, at Sheriff Hutton § in Yorkshire.

* Journal, vol. i. p. 1. -i- Ibid., vol. iii. p. 233.

% Ibid., vol. 11. p. 259. § Ibid., vol. ii. p. 67.

daring the last Four Years. 181

Marl is commonly applied in Cheshire to light soils at the rate of
128 cart-loads to the acre.* I have also had specimens of marl
so used sent from the New Forest in Hampshire. The greatest
improvement of recent times, the application of clay to peat
and peaty sand in Lincolnshire and the wide district of the fens,
by which in one instance^ as we learn from Mr. Wingate.f
on land which had been almost worthless, two white crops had
been grown every three years, one of them wheat, yielding 40
bushels per acre, — an unexampled rotation, not used, however,
only when the land was fresh, but continued for eighteen years ; —
this improvement, which equals anything that has been done in
Flanders, is another instance of the same principle. It is, there-
fore, important to examine the facts accurately : as yet, however,
we have not the means.

The substance applied is sometimes called marl, sometimes clay.
Of the specimens I have received, even those which were called
clay, have generally turned out to be marl, for they contained lime,
which constitutes the distinction. The difference, however, is
important, because marl is a much rarer substance than clay;
and if lime be an indispensable ingredient of clay fit for
manure, many districts of England must be cut off from this
source of improvement. I am inclined, however, to hope that it
is not indispensable. One specimen of the Lincolnshire clay
which I have examined certainly was not a marl. Again, the
Flemings, as Mr. Rham^ informs us, have converted their sandy
desert into one of the most fertile districts of Europe by bringing
up year after year 2 inches of subsoil from trenches shifted each
year, until they reached a depth of 2 feet. Their sands, I be-
lieve, rest often upon a yellow clay, and their fields have in some
places the singular appearance of light sand on the surface, while
water is standing in the ditches 2 feet below. I do not think that
the clay of the Netherlands contains much lime. I have met
with an instance of a strong clay without lime in Suffolk, which
has been applied to a poor light calcareous soil, and paid itself
the first year in the clover-crop. § Near Reading, too, the same
effect has been produced by the clay dug out from the railway on
a thin burning gravel. That clay is certainly not a marl. We have
also a striking account II in our last Number of the application of
blue shale to a field of gravel and sand, on which dung and bones
had equally failed to produce either turnips or barley, yet 50
cart-loads of this shale brought on each acre 40 bushels of barley.
Now shale is clay half hardened into blue slate. I do not know

* Mr. Cuthbert Johnson on Fertihzers, p. 271.
'(• Journal, vol. ii. p. 408. % Outlines of Flemish Husbandry.

^S Prize Essay of East Suffolk Agricultural Association, by Captain
Alexander. || Journal, vol. iii. p. 161.

1 82 Proore.f.9 of Agricvltural Knotvledg e

whether there was lime in the shale, probably not ; but here is
an answer to a question sometimes asked when the admixture of
soils is proposed — Is clay better than dung ? The answer is Yes.
For on very light land even dung will not produce wheat, but clay
will ; and I may now give a case in point, which happened this
year on my own land, a piece of barley, containing 12 acres,
the soil a poor, loose, peaty sand. When the blade appeared,
one-half of the piece looked green and healthy, the other half,
yellow and sickly. On inquiry I found that to the thriving
portion there had been applied two slight dressings of strong clay
(not marl, for it had been examined), amounting only to 50 loads on
the acre. The boundary was distinct. But in the middle of the
sickly portion was also a square patch of vigorous growth. Here
there had been a dunghill one year before. The result at har-
vest was this, that on the clayed portion there was a thick crop of
good colour up to the boundary, and even v/here a detached
heap of clay had been laid ; on the unclayed portion the crop v/as
thin, many of the plants having perished. An acre of each was
fairly selected and threshed separately. The unclayed acre
yielded 34i- bushels of barley, the clayed acre 46 bushels : so
that this lasting improvement of the soil was paid in the first year.
Where the dunghill had been, the barley ripened prematurely,
was of a dark-brown colour, and the seed was shrivelled. It is
commonly said by farmers on our burning land that the better a
field has been dressed in the previous winter the worse will the
barley be in a hot summer ; and I see that they are right. This
amounts to the remark of Mr. Handley, that dung will not benefit
land beyond a certain point — will produce not wheat, but straw.
It is, I believe, a fundamental principle of agriculture, that each
soil has a limit beyond which manure cannot force it, and the
principle should never be left out of sight. I would add another
rule. Strengthen the soil itself where you are able, and you raise
that limit permanently. Corn, especially wheat, requires solidity
in the soil. A principal cause of barrenness,''' as Mr. Rham has
shown us, is coarseness of its particles — I suppose because the
rootlets are not in contact with such soil. Marl, I believe, does
not act merely by its lime, but corrects this defect by interposing
finer particles in the soil. Clay certainly acts in this way. But
on this important subject I hope that our practical members
will send statements of their experience, and specimens for
examination. It is remarkable that, among the many analyses of
soils reported by Dr. Liebig, all the fine close sands are fertile,
and the coarse loose sands, with one exception only, are barren.

But though clay may act which is not marl, and does not con-
tain lime, there is no doubt that the lime contained in marl is also

'•= Mr. Rham on the Analysis of Soils.— Journal, vol. i. p. 47.

during tlie last Four Years. 183

beneficial. In Mecklenburg sandy marl* is used as well as clay
marl. In the county of Suffolk there is a loose rubble called
craig now largely used by farmers as a dressing for land. The
account of its discovery, given in a prize-essay of the East Suffolk
Agricultural Society^ by Captain Alexander^, is so remarkable,
that I will quote it at length : —

" I now come to the shelly deposit denominated red craig : it con-
sists of shell mixed with sand and gravel. It is barren in its own
nature, and is therefore used, instead of gravel, to form garden-walks ;
it contains much oxide of iron, and was first discovered to be useful as a
stimulus to soils overcharged with sour, black, vegetable deposits, from
the following accident. A person was carting some of this craig for a
garden-walk, and, in conveying it over a black barren soil, the cart broke
down and scattered the contents ; the driver, instead of collecting the
craig, spread it over the surface where it lay. The field was after this
prepared for turnips in the usual way, and, much to the surprise of the
occupier, there was a good crop of full-sized turnips where the craig
had been cast, while the rest of the field afforded only a miserable crop
of stunted growth. By this accident was the application of craig first
made efficient ; and it is almost impossible to calculate the increase
added to our agriculliiral produce by this discovery in the craig
districts.^'

Such is the origin of a widely-spread provincial practice. On
the same loose earth my own neighbours have observed that, where
limestone -rubble has lain, or a road has passed, the turnips are
better, and they spread rubble upon such land. Mr. Charnock f